- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Reviews of Modern Physics

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

Order and disorder at the atomic scale: Microscopy applied to semiconductors

Enrico Di Russo, Tom Verstijnen, Paul Koenraad, Konstantinos Pantzas, Gilles Patriarche, and Lorenzo Rigutti*

Enrico Di Russo

Tom Verstijnen and Paul Koenraad

Konstantinos Pantzas and Gilles Patriarche

Lorenzo Rigutti*

  • *Contact author: lorenzo.rigutti@univ-rouen.fr
PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 97, 025006 – Published 26 June, 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.97.025006

Abstract

Over the past three decades, atomic-scale microscopy techniques (atom-probe tomography, scanning tunneling microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy) have played a significant role in the understanding of order- and disorder-related phenomena in compound semiconductors. The possibility of imaging and quantifying disorder in the direct space within a small and selected field of view, with atomic-scale spatial resolution, and the possibility of retrieving information on composition opened new perspectives and led to a new level of understanding in semiconductor physics. On the basis of results from the domain of III-V semiconductors, this review sketches a synoptic picture of the application of microscopy to the study of order and disorder and aims to establish a clear reference of methods for research facing order- and disorder-related issues in new semiconductor materials.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (349)

  1. Agrawal, Ravi, Rodrigo A. Bernal, Dieter Isheim, and Horacio D. Espinosa, 2011, “Characterizing atomic composition and dopant distribution in wide band gap semiconductor nanowires using laser-assisted atom probe tomography,” J. Phys. Chem. C 115, 17688–17694.
  2. Ahmadi, Elaheh, Hamidreza Chalabi, Stephen W. Kaun, Ravi Shivaraman, James S. Speck, and Umesh K. Mishra, 2014, “Contribution of alloy clustering to limiting the two-dimensional electron gas mobility in AlGaN/GaN and InAlN/GaN heterostructures: Theory and experiment,” J. Appl. Phys. 116, 133702.
  3. Akama, Y., E. Nishimura, A. Sakai, and H. Murakami, 1990, “New scanning tunneling microscopy tip for measuring surface topography,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 8, 429–433.
  4. Albrektsen, O., D. J. Arent, H. P. Meier, and H. W. M. Salemink, 1990, “Tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy of molecular beam epitaxy grown GaAs-AlGaAs interfaces,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 31–33.
  5. Amichi, Lynda, Isabelle Mouton, Victor Boureau, Enrico Di Russo, Philippe Vennéguès, Philippe De Mierry, Adeline Grenier, Pierre-Henri Jouneau, Catherine Bougerol, and David Cooper, 2020, “Correlative investigation of Mg doping in GaN layers grown at different temperatures by atom probe tomography and off-axis electron holography,” Nanotechnology 31, 045702.
  6. Amichi, Lynda, Isabelle Mouton, Enrico Di Russo, Victor Boureau, Frédéric Barbier, Amélie Dussaigne, Adeline Grenier, Pierre-Henri Jouneau, Catherine Bougerol, and David Cooper, 2020, “Three-dimensional measurement of Mg dopant distribution and electrical activity in GaN by correlative atom probe tomography and off-axis electron holography,” J. Appl. Phys. 127, 065702.
  7. Arnoldi, L., E. P. Silaeva, A. Gaillard, F. Vurpillot, I. Blum, L. Rigutti, B. Deconihout, and A. Vella, 2014, “Energy deficit of pulsed-laser field-ionized and field-emitted ions from non-metallic nano-tips,” J. Appl. Phys. 115, 203705.
  8. Arslan, Ilke, Emmanuelle A. Marquis, Mark Homer, Michelle A. Hekmaty, and Norman C. Bartelt, 2008, “Towards better 3-D reconstructions by combining electron tomography and atom-probe tomography,” Ultramicroscopy 108, 1579–1585.
  9. Baladés, N., M. Herrera, D. L. Sales, M. P. Guerrero, E. Guerrero, P. L. Galindo, and S. i. Molina, 2019, “Influence of the crosstalk on the intensity of HAADF-STEM images of quaternary semiconductor materials,” J. Microsc. 273, 81–88.
  10. Barnes, J. P., et al., 2018, “Atom probe tomography for advanced nanoelectronic devices: Current status and perspectives,” Scr. Mater. 148, 91–97.
  11. Barthel, J., 2018, “Dr. Probe: A software for high-resolution STEM image simulation,” Ultramicroscopy 193, 1–11.
  12. Bas, P., A. Bostel, B. Deconihout, and D. Blavette, 1995, “A general protocol for the reconstruction of 3D atom probe data,” Appl. Surf. Sci. 87–88, 298–304.
  13. Becker, Jonathan, Megan O. Hill, Max Sonner, Julian Treu, Markus Döblinger, Alexander Hirler, Hubert Riedl, Jonathan J. Finley, Lincoln Lauhon, and Gregor Koblmüller, 2018, “Correlated chemical and electrically active dopant analysis in catalyst-free Si-doped InAs nanowires,” ACS Nano 12, 1603–1610.
  14. Beinke, Daniel, Christian Oberdorfer, and Guido Schmitz, 2016, “Towards an accurate volume reconstruction in atom probe tomography,” Ultramicroscopy 165, 34–41.
  15. Bellotti, E., F. Bertazzi, A. Tibaldi, J. Schuster, J. Bajaj, and M. Reed, 2021, “Disorder-Induced Degradation of Vertical Carrier Transport in Strain-Balanced Antimony-Based Superlattices,” Phys. Rev. Appl. 16, 054028.
  16. Bennett, S. E., R. M. Ulfig, P. H. Clifton, M. J. Kappers, J. S. Barnard, C. J. Humphreys, and R. A. Oliver, 2011, “Atom probe tomography and transmission electron microscopy of a Mg-doped AlGaN/GaN superlattice,” Ultramicroscopy 111, 207–211.
  17. Bennett, Samantha E., David W. Saxey, Menno J. Kappers, Jonathan S. Barnard, Colin J. Humphreys, George D. W. Smith, and Rachel A. Oliver, 2011, “Atom probe tomography assessment of the impact of electron beam exposure on InxGa1−xN/GaN quantum wells,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 021906.
  18. Bennett, Samantha E., Tim M. Smeeton, David W. Saxey, George D. W. Smith, Stewart E. Hooper, Jonathan Heffernan, Colin J. Humphreys, and Rachel A. Oliver, 2012, “Atom probe tomography characterisation of a laser diode structure grown by molecular beam epitaxy,” J. Appl. Phys. 111, 053508.
  19. Binnig, G., and H. Rohrer, 1983, “Scanning tunneling microscopy,” Surf. Sci. 126, 236–244.
  20. Binnig, Gerd, Heinrich Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and Edmund Weibel, 1982, “Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling Microscopy,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 57.
  21. Blavette, D., A. Bostel, J. M. Sarrau, B. Deconihout, and A. Menand, 1993, “An atom probe for three-dimensional tomography,” Nature (London) 363, 432–435.
  22. Blavette, Didier, and Sébastien Duguay, 2014, “Atom probe tomography in nanoelectronics,” Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 68, 10101.
  23. Blumtritt, H., D. Isheim, S. Senz, D. N. Seidman, and O. Moutanabbir, 2014, “Preparation of nanowire specimens for laser-assisted atom probe tomography,” Nanotechnology 25, 435704.
  24. Bocquel, J., A. D. Giddings, T. Mano, T. J. Prosa, D. J. Larson, and P. M. Koenraad, 2014, “Composition profiling of GaAs/AlGaAs quantum dots grown by droplet epitaxy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 105, 153102.
  25. Bonef, Bastien, Massimo Catalano, Cory Lund, Steven P. Denbaars, Shuji Nakamura, Umesh K. Mishra, Moon J. Kim, and Stacia Keller, 2017, “Indium segregation in N-polar InGaN quantum wells evidenced by energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 110, 143101.
  26. Bonef, Bastien, Richard Cramer, and James S. Speck, 2017, “Nanometer scale composition study of MBE grown BGaN performed by atom probe tomography,” J. Appl. Phys. 121, 225701.
  27. Bonef, Bastien, Rushabh D. Shah, and Kunal Mukherjee, 2019, “Fast diffusion and segregation along threading dislocations in semiconductor heterostructures,” Nano Lett. 19, 1428–1436.
  28. Borisevich, Albina Y., Andrew R. Lupini, and Stephen J. Pennycook, 2006, “Depth sectioning with the aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 3044–3048.
  29. Bougerol, Catherine, Eric Robin, Enrico Di Russo, Edith Bellet-Amalric, Vincent Grenier, Akhil Ajay, Lorenzo Rigutti, and Eva Monroy, 2021, “Solubility limit of Ge dopants in AlGaN: A chemical and microstructural investigation down to the nanoscale,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 4165–4173.
  30. Bozkurt, M., V. A. Grant, J. M. Ulloa, R. P. Campion, C. T. Foxon, E. Marega, Jr., G. J. Salamo, and P. M. Koenraad, 2010, “Atomic scale characterization of Mn doped InAs/GaAs quantum dots,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 042108.
  31. Browne, David A., Micha N. Fireman, Baishakhi Mazumder, Leah Y. Kuritzky, Yuh-Renn Wu, and James S. Speck, 2017, “Vertical transport through AlGaN barriers in heterostructures grown by ammonia molecular beam epitaxy and metalorganic chemical vapor deposition,” Semicond. Sci. Technol. 32, 025010.
  32. Bruls, D. M., P. M. Koenraad, H. W. M. Salemink, J. H. Wolter, M. Hopkinson, and M. S. Skolnick, 2003, “Stacked low-growth-rate InAs quantum dots studied at the atomic level by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 3758–3760.
  33. Callsen, G., R. Butté, and N. Grandjean, 2019, “Probing Alloy Formation Using Different Excitonic Species: The Particular Case of InGaN,” Phys. Rev. X 9, 031030.
  34. Calvo, Rio, Marta, Jean-Baptiste Rodriguez, Charles Cornet, Laurent Cerutti, Michel Ramonda, Achim Trampert, Gilles Patriarche, and Éric Tournié, 2022, “Crystal phase control during epitaxial hybridization of III-V semiconductors with silicon,” Adv. Electron. Mater. 8, 2100777.
  35. Cao, Boxiao, Shunda Chen, Xiaochen Jin, Jifeng Liu, and Tianshu Li, 2020, “Short-range order in GeSn alloy,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 57245–57253.
  36. Ceguerra, Anna V., Michael P. Moody, Rebecca C. Powles, Timothy C. Petersen, Ross K. W. Marceau, and Simon P. Ringer, 2012, “Short-range order in multicomponent materials,” Acta Crystallogr. Sect. A 68, 547–560.
  37. Cerezo, A., T. J. Godfrey, and G. D. W. Smith, 1988, “Application of a position-sensitive detector to atom probe microanalysis,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59, 862–866.
  38. Cerezo, A., C. R. M. Grovenor, and G. D. W. Smith, 1986, “Pulsed laser atom probe analysis of semiconductor materials,” J. Microsc. 141, 155–170.
  39. Chan, J. A., J. Z. Liu, and Alex Zunger, 2010, “Bridging the gap between atomic microstructure and electronic properties of alloys: The case of (In,Ga)N,” Phys. Rev. B 82, 045112.
  40. Chen, Huajie, A. R. Smith, R. M. Feenstra, D. W. Greve, and J. E. Northrup, 1999, “Scanning tunneling microscopy studies of InGaN growth by molecular beam epitaxy,” MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res. 4, 858–863.
  41. Chen, Julian, 2021, Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, New York).
  42. Cheng, Shaobo, Brian Langelier, Yong-Ho Ra, Roksana Tonny Rashid, Zetian Mi, and Gianluigi A. Botton, 2019, “Structural origin of the high-performance light-emitting InGaN/AlGaN quantum disks,” Nanoscale 11, 8994–8999.
  43. Cherkashin, N., S. Reboh, M. J. Hÿtch, A. Claverie, V. V. Preobrazhenskii, M. A. Putyato, B. R. Semyagin, and V. V. Chaldyshev, 2013, “Determination of stress, strain, and elemental distribution within In(Ga)As quantum dots embedded in GaAs using advanced transmission electron microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 102, 173115.
  44. Chichibu, Shigefusa F., et al., 2006, “Origin of defect-insensitive emission probability in In-containing (Al,In,Ga)N alloy semiconductors,” Nat. Mater. 5, 810–816.
  45. Clark, Daniel R., Huayang Zhu, David R. Diercks, Sandrine Ricote, Robert J. Kee, Ali Almansoori, Brian P. Gorman, and Ryan P. O’Hayre, 2016, “Probing grain-boundary chemistry and electronic structure in proton-conducting oxides by atom probe tomography,” Nano Lett. 16, 6924–6930.
  46. Cojocaru-Mirédin, O., P. Choi, R. Wuerz, and D. Raabe, 2011, “Atomic-scale characterization of the CdS/CuInSe2 interface in thin-film solar cells,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 98, 103504.
  47. Cojocaru-Mirédin, Oana, Arun Devaraj, and Guest Editors, 2022, “Correlative microscopy and techniques with atom probe tomography: Opportunities in materials science,” MRS Bull. 47, 680–687.
  48. Cottrell, A. H., and B. A. Bilby, 1949, “Dislocation theory of yielding and strain ageing of iron,” Proc. Phys. Soc. London Sect. A 62, 49.
  49. Cowley, J. M., 1965, “Short-range order and long-range order parameters,” Phys. Rev. 138, A1384–A1389.
  50. Crewe, A. V., J. Wall, and J. Langmore, 1970, “Visibility of single atoms,” Science 168, 1338–1340.
  51. Cuduvally, Ramya, Richard J. H. Morris, Piero Ferrari, Janusz Bogdanowicz, Claudia Fleischmann, Davit Melkonyan, and Wilfried Vandervorst, 2020, “Potential sources of compositional inaccuracy in the atom probe tomography of InxGa1−xAs,” Ultramicroscopy 210, 112918.
  52. Cusack, N. E., 1987, The Physics of Structurally Disordered Matter: An Introduction, Graduate Student Series in Physics (Adam Hilger, Bristol, England).
  53. Da Costa, G., 2016, “Atom probe tomography: Detector issues and technology,” in Atom Probe Tomography: Put Theory into Practice, edited by Williams Lefebvre-Ulrikson, François Vurpillot, and Xavier Sauvage (Academic Press, New York), Chap. 6, pp. 155–181.
  54. Da Costa, Gerald, Celia Castro, Antoine Normand, Charly Vaudolon, Aidar Zakirov, Juan Macchi, Mohammed Ilhami, Kaveh Edalati, François Vurpillot, and Williams Lefebvre, 2024, “Bringing atom probe tomography to transmission electron microscopes,” Nat. Commun. 15, 9870.
  55. De Geuser, F., W. Lefebvre, and D. Blavette, 2006, “3D atom probe study of solute atoms clustering during natural ageing and pre-ageing of an Al-Mg-Si alloy,” Philos. Mag. Lett. 86, 227–234.
  56. De Geuser, Frédéric, and Baptiste Gault, 2020, “Metrology of small particles and solute clusters by atom probe tomography,” Acta Mater. 188, 406–415.
  57. De Geuser, Frédéric, Baptiste Gault, Alain Bostel, and François Vurpillot, 2007, “Correlated field evaporation as seen by atom probe tomography,” Surf. Sci. 601, 536–543.
  58. de la Mata, María, and Sergio I. Molina, 2022, “STEM tools for semiconductor characterization: Beyond high-resolution imaging,” Nanomaterials 12, 337.
  59. Deppe, D. G., and N. Holonyak, Jr., 1988, “Atom diffusion and impurity-induced layer disordering in quantum well III-V semiconductor heterostructures,” J. Appl. Phys. 64, R93–R113.
  60. de Raad, G. J., D. M. Bruls, P. M. Koenraad, and J. H. Wolter, 2002, “Interplay between tip-induced band bending and voltage-dependent surface corrugation on GaAs(110) surfaces,” Phys. Rev. B 66, 195306.
  61. de Raad, G. J., P. M. Koenraad, and J. H. Wolter, 1999, “Use of the Schiller decapitation process for the manufacture of high quality tungsten scanning tunneling microscopy tips,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 17, 1946–1953.
  62. Devaraj, A., R. Colby, W. P. Hess, D. E. Perea, and S. Thevuthasan, 2013, “Role of photoexcitation and field ionization in the measurement of accurate oxide stoichiometry by laser-assisted atom probe tomography,” J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 4, 993–998.
  63. Diercks, D. R., 2013, “Atom probe tomography evaporation behavior of c-axis GaN nanowires: Crystallographic, stoichiometric, and detection efficiency aspects,” J. Appl. Phys. 114, 184903.
  64. Dietl, Tomasz, and Hideo Ohno, 2014, “Dilute ferromagnetic semiconductors: Physics and spintronic structures,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 86, 187–251.
  65. Dimkou, Ioanna, Jonathan Houard, Névine Rochat, Pradip Dalapati, Enrico Di Russo, David Cooper, Adeline Grenier, Eva Monroy, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2023, “The photonic atom probe as a tool for the analysis of the effect of defects on the luminescence of nitride quantum structures,” Microsc. Microanal. 29, 451–458.
  66. Dimkou, Ioanna, Enrico Di Russo, Pradip Dalapati, Jonathan Houard, Nevine Rochat, David Cooper, Edith Bellet-Amarlic, Adeline Grenier, Eva Monroy, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2020, “InGaN quantum dots studied by correlative microscopy techniques for enhanced light-emitting diodes,” ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 3, 10133–10143.
  67. Ding, B., M. Frentrup, S. M. Fairclough, M. J. Kappers, M. Jain, A. Kovács, D. J. Wallis, and R. A. Oliver, 2020, “Alloy segregation at stacking faults in zincblende GaN heterostructures,” J. Appl. Phys. 128, 145703.
  68. Di Russo, E., I. Blum, J. Houard, M. Gilbert, G. Da Costa, D. Blavette, and L. Rigutti, 2018, “Compositional accuracy of atom probe tomography measurements in GaN: Impact of experimental parameters and multiple evaporation events,” Ultramicroscopy 187, 126–134.
  69. Di Russo, E., I. Blum, I. Rivalta, J. Houard, G. Da Costa, F. Vurpillot, D. Blavette, and L. Rigutti, 2020, “Detecting dissociation dynamics of phosphorus molecular ions by atom probe tomography,” J. Phys. Chem. A 124, 10977–10988.
  70. Di Russo, E., et al., 2017, “Three-dimensional atomic-scale investigation of ZnO–MgxZn1−xO m-plane heterostructures,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 111, 032108.
  71. Di Russo, E., et al., 2018, “Composition metrology of ternary semiconductor alloys analyzed by atom probe tomography,” J. Phys. Chem. C 122, 16704–16714.
  72. Di Russo, E., et al., 2019, “Compositional accuracy in atom probe tomography analyses performed on III-N light emitting diodes,” J. Appl. Phys. 126, 124307.
  73. Di Russo, E., et al., 2020a, “Multi-microscopy nanoscale characterization of the doping profile in a hybrid Mg/Ge-doped tunnel junction,” Nanotechnology 31, 465706.
  74. Di Russo, E., et al., 2020b, “Super-resolution optical spectroscopy of nanoscale emitters within a photonic atom probe,” Nano Lett. 20, 8733–8738.
  75. Di Russo, Enrico, Ivan Blum, Jonathan Houard, Gérald Da Costa, Didier Blavette, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2017, “Field-dependent measurement of GaAs composition by atom probe tomography,” Microsc. Microanal. 23, 1067–1075.
  76. Di Russo, Enrico, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2022, “Correlative atom probe tomography and optical spectroscopy: An original gateway to materials science and nanoscale physics,” MRS Bull. 47, 727–735.
  77. Di Russo, Enrico, et al., 2023, “Synthesis of relaxed Ge0.9Sn0.1/Ge by nanosecond pulsed laser melting,” Appl. Surf. Sci. 612, 155817.
  78. Di Vito, A., A. Pecchia, A. Di Carlo, and M. Auf der Maur, 2019, “Impact of Compositional Nonuniformity in (In,Ga)N-Based Light-Emitting Diodes,” Phys. Rev. Appl. 12, 014055.
  79. Doppalapudi, D., S. N. Basu, K. F. Ludwig, Jr., and T. D. Moustakas, 1998, “Phase separation and ordering in InGaN alloys grown by molecular beam epitaxy,” J. Appl. Phys. 84, 1389–1395.
  80. Dosenovic, Djordje, et al., 2023, “Mapping domain junctions using 4D-STEM: Toward controlled properties of epitaxially grown transition metal dichalcogenide monolayers,” 2D Mater. 10, 045024.
  81. Du, Sichao, et al., 2013a, “Quantitative dopant distributions in GaAs nanowires using atom probe tomography,” Ultramicroscopy, 132, 186–192.
  82. Du, Sichao, et al., 2013b, “Full tip imaging in atom probe tomography,” Ultramicroscopy 124, 96–101.
  83. Duboz, Jean-Yves, Wanda Isnard, Jesus Zuniga-Perez, and Jean Massies, 2023, “Why and how In composition fluctuations appear in InGaN?,” J. Cryst. Growth 603, 127033.
  84. Dubrovskii, Vladimir G., and Egor D. Leshchenko, 2023, “Composition of III-V ternary materials under arbitrary material fluxes: The general approach unifying kinetics and thermodynamics,” Phys. Rev. Mater. 7, 074603.
  85. Duguay, Sébastien, Andrés Echeverri, Celia Castro, and Olivier Latry, 2019, “Evidence of Mg segregation to threading dislocation in normally-off GaN-HEMT,” IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol. 18, 995–998.
  86. Dzuba, Brandon, Trang Nguyen, Amrita Sen, Rosa E. Diaz, Megha Dubey, Mukesh Bachhav, Janelle P. Wharry, Michael J. Manfra, and Oana Malis, 2022, “Elimination of remnant phases in low-temperature growth of wurtzite ScAlN by molecular-beam epitaxy,” J. Appl. Phys. 132, 175701.
  87. Ebert, H. Philipp, 2003, “Imaging defects and dopants,” Mater. Today 6, 36–43.
  88. Ebert, Ph., S. Landrock, Y. P. Chiu, U. Breuer, and R. E. Dunin-Borkowski, 2012, “Dopant mapping of Be δ-doped layers in GaAs tailored by counterdoping using scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 192103.
  89. Ebert, Ph., Tianjiao Zhang, F. Kluge, M. Simon, Zhenyu Zhang, and K. Urban, 1999, “Importance of Many-Body Effects in the Clustering of Charged Zn Dopant Atoms in GaAs,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 757–760.
  90. Ekvall, Inger, Erik Wahlström, Dan Claesson, Håkan Olin, and Eva Olsson, 1999, “Preparation and characterization of electrochemically etched W tips for STM,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 10, 11.
  91. Estivill, Robert, Guillaume Audoit, Jean-Paul Barnes, Adeline Grenier, and Didier Blavette, 2016, “Preparation and analysis of atom probe tips by xenon focused ion beam milling,” Microsc. Microanal. 22, 576–582.
  92. Estivill, Robert, Adeline Grenier, Sébastien Duguay, François Vurpillot, Tanguy Terlier, Jean-Paul Barnes, Jean-Michel Hartmann, and Didier Blavette, 2015, “Quantitative analysis of Si/SiGeC superlattices using atom probe tomography,” Ultramicroscopy, 159, 223–231.
  93. Feenstra, R. M., 1994, “Cross-sectional scanning tunnelling microscopy of III-V semiconductor structures,” Semicond. Sci. Technol. 9, 2157.
  94. Feenstra, R. M., Joseph A. Stroscio, J. Tersoff, and A. P. Fein, 1987, “Atom-Selective Imaging of the GaAs(110) Surface,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1192–1195.
  95. Filoche, Marcel, Marco Piccardo, Yuh-Renn Wu, Chi-Kang Li, Claude Weisbuch, and Svitlana Mayboroda, 2017, “Localization landscape theory of disorder in semiconductors. I. Theory and modeling,” Phys. Rev. B 95, 144204.
  96. Forrest, R. L., J. Throckmorton, C. L. Canedy, G. Boishin, I. Vurgaftman, J. R. Meyer, and L. J. Whitman, 2011, “Investigation of lateral modulation in antimonide superlattices,” Phys. Rev. B 83, 115320.
  97. Francaviglia, Luca, et al., 2019, “Segregation scheme of indium in AlGaInAs nanowire shells,” Phys. Rev. Mater. 3, 023001.
  98. Froyen, Sverre, and Alex Zunger, 1996, “Surface segregation and ordering in III-V semiconductor alloys,” Phys. Rev. B 53, 4570–4579.
  99. Gajjela, Raja S. R., and Paul M. Koenraad, 2021, “Atomic-scale characterization of droplet epitaxy quantum dots,” Nanomaterials 11, 85.
  100. Galindo, Pedro L., Sławomir Kret, Ana M. Sanchez, Jean-Yves Laval, Andrés Yáñez, Joaquín Pizarro, Elisa Guerrero, Teresa Ben, and Sergio I. Molina, 2007, “The Peak Pairs algorithm for strain mapping from HRTEM images,” Ultramicroscopy 107, 1186–1193.
  101. Galtrey, M. J., R. A. Oliver, M. J. Kappers, C. J. Humphreys, P. H. Clifton, D. Larson, D. W. Saxey, and A. Cerezo, 2008, “Three-dimensional atom probe analysis of green- and blue-emitting InxGa1−xN/GaN multiple quantum well structures,” J. Appl. Phys. 104, 013524.
  102. Galtrey, Mark J., Rachel A. Oliver, Menno J. Kappers, Colin J. Humphreys, Debbie J. Stokes, Peter H. Clifton, and Alfred Cerezo, 2007, “Three-dimensional atom probe studies of an InxGa1−xN/GaN multiple quantum well structure: Assessment of possible indium clustering,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 061903.
  103. Garnaes, J., F. Kragh, K. A. Mørch, and A. R. Thölén, 1990, “Transmission electron microscopy of scanning tunneling tips,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 8, 441–444.
  104. Gault, B., F. Vurpillot, A. Vella, M. Gilbert, A. Menand, D. Blavette, and B. Deconihout, 2006, “Design of a femtosecond laser assisted tomographic atom probe,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77, 043705.
  105. Gault, Baptiste, Michael P. Moody, Julie M. Cairney, and Simon P. Ringer, 2012, Atom Probe Microscopy (Springer, New York).
  106. Gault, Baptiste, David W. Saxey, Michael W. Ashton, Susan B. Sinnott, Ann N. Chiaramonti, Michael P. Moody, and Daniel K. Schreiber, 2016, “Behavior of molecules and molecular ions near a field emitter,” New J. Phys. 18, 033031.
  107. Ge, M., F. Su, Z. Zhao, and D. Su, 2020, “Deep learning analysis on microscopic imaging in materials science,” Mater. Today Nano 11, 100087.
  108. Geiser, Brian P., Thomas F. Kelly, David J. Larson, Jason Schneir, and Jay P. Roberts, 2007, “Spatial distribution maps for atom probe tomography,” Microsc. Microanal. 13, 437–447.
  109. Gencarelli, F., et al., 2013, “Crystalline properties and strain relaxation mechanism of CVD grown GeSn,” ECS J. Solid State Sci. Technol. 2, P134.
  110. Gerthsen, D., E. Hahn, B. Neubauer, A. Rosenauer, O. Schon, M. Heuken, and A. Rizzi, 2000, “Composition fluctuations in InGaN analyzed by transmission electron microscopy,” Phys. Status Solidi (a) 177, 145–155.
  111. Giddings, A. D., J. G. Keizer, M. Hara, G. J. Hamhuis, H. Yuasa, H. Fukuzawa, and P. M. Koenraad, 2011, “Composition profiling of InAs quantum dots and wetting layers by atom probe tomography and cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Phys. Rev. B 83, 205308.
  112. Glas, F., G. Patriarche, L. Largeau, and A. Lemaitre, 2004, “Determination of the Local Concentrations of Mn Interstitials and Antisite Defects in GaMnAs,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 93, 086107.
  113. Glas, Frank, Mohammed Reda Ramdani, Gilles Patriarche, and Jean-Christophe Harmand, 2013, “Predictive modeling of self-catalyzed III-V nanowire growth,” Phys. Rev. B 88, 195304.
  114. Gordon, O., P. D’Hondt, L. Knijff, S. E. Freeney, F. Junqueira, P. Moriarty, and I. Swart, 2019, “Scanning tunneling state recognition with multi-class neural network ensembles,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 90, 103704.
  115. Graham, D. M., A. Soltani-Vala, P. Dawson, M. J. Godfrey, T. M. Smeeton, J. S. Barnard, M. J. Kappers, C. J. Humphreys, and E. J. Thrush, 2005, “Optical and microstructural studies of InGaN/GaN single-quantum-well structures,” J. Appl. Phys. 97, 103508.
  116. Grange, T., et al., 2020, “Atomic-Scale Insights into Semiconductor Heterostructures: From Experimental Three-Dimensional Analysis of the Interface to a Generalized Theory of Interfacial Roughness Scattering,” Phys. Rev. Appl. 13, 044062.
  117. Griffiths, James T., et al., 2016, “The microstructure of non-polar a-plane (112¯0) InGaN quantum wells,” J. Appl. Phys. 119, 175703.
  118. Gu, G. H., C. G. Park, and K. B. Nam, 2009, “Inhomogeneity of a highly efficient InGaN based blue LED studied by three-dimensional atom probe tomography,” Phys. Status Solidi RRL 3, 100–102.
  119. Gu, Gil Ho, Dong Hyun Jang, Ki Bum Nam, and Chan Gyung Park, 2013, “Composition fluctuation of in and well-width fluctuation in InGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells in light-emitting diode devices,” Microsc. Microanal. 19, 99–104.
  120. Guo, Hongli, Xu Zhang, and Gang Lu, 2021, “Moiré excitons in defective van der Waals heterostructures,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 118, e2105468118.
  121. Gusev, Alexandr I., Andrej A. Rempel, and Andreas J. Magerl, 2001, “Long-range order,” in Disorder and Order in Strongly Nonstoichiometric Compounds: Transition Metal Carbides, Nitrides and Oxides, Springer Series in Materials Science, edited by Alexandr I. Gusev, Andrej A. Rempel, and Andreas J. Magerl (Springer, Berlin), pp. 179–245.
  122. Hahn, W., et al., 2018, “Evidence of nanoscale Anderson localization induced by intrinsic compositional disorder in InGaN/GaN quantum wells by scanning tunneling luminescence spectroscopy,” Phys. Rev. B 98, 045305.
  123. Håkanson, U., M. K.-J. Johansson, J. Persson, J. Johansson, M.-E. Pistol, L. Montelius, and L. Samuelson, 2002, “Single InP/GaInP quantum dots studied by scanning tunneling microscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy induced luminescence,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 494–496.
  124. Haley, D., T. Petersen, G. Barton, and S. P. Ringer, 2009, “Influence of field evaporation on radial distribution functions in atom probe tomography,” Philos. Mag. 89, 925–943.
  125. Harmand, Jean-Christophe, Gilles Patriarche, Frank Glas, Federico Panciera, Ileana Florea, Jean-Luc Maurice, Laurent Travers, and Yannick Ollivier, 2018, “Atomic Step Flow on a Nanofacet,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 121, 166101.
  126. Haxha, V., I. Drouzas, J. M. Ulloa, M. Bozkurt, P. M. Koenraad, D. J. Mowbray, H. Y. Liu, M. J. Steer, M. Hopkinson, and M. A. Migliorato, 2009, “Role of segregation in InAs/GaAs quantum dot structures capped with a GaAsSb strain-reduction layer,” Phys. Rev. B 80, 165334.
  127. Heinrich, A. J., M. Wenderoth, M. A. Rosentreter, K. Engel, M. A. Schneider, R. G. Ulbrich, E. R. Weber, and K. Uchida, 1998, “Ordering in ternary compound semiconductors studied with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. A 66, S959–S962.
  128. Hellman, Olof C., John Blatz du Rivage, and David N. Seidman, 2003, “Efficient sampling for three-dimensional atom probe microscopy data,” Ultramicroscopy, 95, 199–205.
  129. Hennighausen, Zachariah, Christopher Lane, Ioana Gianina Buda, Vineet K. Mathur, Arun Bansil, and Swastik Kar, 2019, “Evidence of a purely electronic two-dimensional lattice at the interface of TMD/Bi2Se3 heterostructures,” Nanoscale 11, 15929–15938.
  130. Herbig, M., D. Raabe, Y. J. Li, P. Choi, S. Zaefferer, and S. Goto, 2014, “Atomic-Scale Quantification of Grain Boundary Segregation in Nanocrystalline Material,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 112, 126103.
  131. Hernández-Saz, J., M. Herrera, F. J. Delgado, S. Duguay, T. Philippe, M. Gonzalez, J. Abell, R. J. Walters, and S. I. Molina, 2016, “Atom-scale compositional distribution in InAlAsSb-based triple junction solar cells by atom probe tomography,” Nanotechnology 27, 305402.
  132. Hirst, Louise C., et al., 2017, “Imaging atomic-scale clustering in III-V semiconductor alloys,” ACS Nano 11, 2734–2741.
  133. Hjort, Martin, Jesper Wallentin, Rainer Timm, Alexei A. Zakharov, Ulf Håkanson, Jesper N. Andersen, Edvin Lundgren, Lars Samuelson, Magnus T. Borgström, and Anders Mikkelsen, 2012, “Surface chemistry, structure, and electronic properties from microns to the atomic scale of axially doped semiconductor nanowires,” ACS Nano 6, 9679–9689.
  134. Ho, I-hsiu, and G. B. Stringfellow, 1996, “Solid phase immiscibility in GaInN,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2701–2703.
  135. Horton, Matthew K., Sneha Rhode, Suman-Lata Sahonta, Menno J. Kappers, Sarah J. Haigh, Timothy J. Pennycook, Colin J. Humphreys, Rajiv O. Dusane, and Michelle A. Moram, 2015, “Segregation of In to dislocations in InGaN,” Nano Lett. 15, 923–930.
  136. Houard, J., A. Vella, F. Vurpillot, and B. Deconihout, 2010, “Optical near-field absorption at a metal tip far from plasmonic resonance,” Phys. Rev. B 81, 125411.
  137. Houard, J., et al., 2020, “A photonic atom probe coupling 3D atomic scale analysis with in situ photoluminescence spectroscopy,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 91, 083704.
  138. Huang, Chunyi, Didem Dede, Nicholas Morgan, Valerio Piazza, Xiaobing Hu, Anna Fontcuberta i Morral, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2023, “Trapping layers prevent dopant segregation and enable remote doping of templated self-assembled InGaAs nanowires,” Nano Lett. 23, 6284–6291.
  139. Huber, Martin, Ingo Daumiller, Andrei Andreev, Marco Silvestri, Lauri Knuuttila, Anders Lundskog, Michael Wahl, Michael Kopnarski, and Alberta Bonanni, 2016, “Characterization of AlN/AlGaN/GaN:C heterostructures grown on Si(111) using atom probe tomography, secondary ion mass spectrometry, and vertical current-voltage measurements,” J. Appl. Phys. 119, 125701.
  140. Humphreys, C. J., 2007, “Does In form In-rich clusters in InGaN quantum wells?,” Philos. Mag. 87, 1971–1982.
  141. Hunnestad, K. A., C. Hatzoglou, Z. M. Khalid, P. E. Vullum, Z. Yan, E. Bourret, A. T. J. van Helvoort, S. M. Selbach, and D. Meier, 2022, “Atomic-scale 3D imaging of individual dopant atoms in an oxide semiconductor,” Nat. Commun. 13, 4783.
  142. Hÿtch, M. J., E. Snoeck, and R. Kilaas, 1998, “Quantitative measurement of displacement and strain fields from HREM micrographs,” Ultramicroscopy 74, 131–146.
  143. Hÿtch, Martin, Florent Houdellier, Florian Hüe, and Etienne Snoeck, 2008, “Nanoscale holographic interferometry for strain measurements in electronic devices,” Nature (London) 453, 1086–1089.
  144. Iliopoulos, E., K. F. Ludwig, and T. D. Moustakas, 2003, “Complex ordering in ternary wurtzite nitride alloys,” J. Phys. Chem. Solids 64, 1525–1532.
  145. Iliopoulos, E., K. F. Ludwig, Jr., T. D. Moustakas, and S. N. G. Chu, 2001, “Chemical ordering in AlGaN alloys grown by molecular beam epitaxy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 463–465.
  146. Ivanova, L., H. Eisele, A. Lenz, R. Timm, O. Schumann, L. Geelhaar, H. Riechert, and M. Dähne, 2010, “Effect of nitrogen on the InAs/GaAs quantum dot formation,” Phys. Status Solidi (c) 7, 355–358.
  147. Iwata, Yoshiya, Takao Oto, David Gachet, Ryan G. Banal, Mitsuru Funato, and Yoichi Kawakami, 2015, “Co-existence of a few and sub micron inhomogeneities in Al-rich AlGaN/AlN quantum wells,” J. Appl. Phys. 117, 115702.
  148. Jäger, N. D., K. Urban, E. R. Weber, and Ph. Ebert, 2002, “Dopant atom clustering and charge screening induced roughness of electronic interfaces in GaAs p-n multilayers,” Phys. Rev. B 65, 235302.
  149. Jeon, Nari, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2015, “Atom probe tomography of nanowires,” in Semiconductor Nanowires I: Growth and Theory, Semiconductors and Semimetals Vol. 93, edited by Anna Fontcuberta I. Morral, Shadi A. Dayeh, and Chennupati Jagadish (Elsevier, New York), Chap. 6, pp. 249–278.
  150. Jeon, Nari, Bernhard Loitsch, Stefanie Morkoetter, Gerhard Abstreiter, Jonathan Finley, Hubert J. Krenner, Gregor Koblmueller, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2015, “Alloy fluctuations act as quantum dot-like emitters in GaAs-AlGaAs core-shell nanowires,” ACS Nano 9, 8335–8343.
  151. Johnson, M. B., O. Albrektsen, R. M. Feenstra, and H. W. M. Salemink, 1993, “Direct imaging of dopants in GaAs with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 2923–2925.
  152. Johnson, M. B., P. M. Koenraad, W. C. van der Vleuten, H. W. M. Salemink, and J. H. Wolter, 1995, “Be Delta-Doped Layers in GaAs Imaged with Atomic Resolution Using Scanning Tunneling Microscopy,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1606–1609.
  153. Kalinin, Sergei V., et al., 2022, “Machine learning in scanning transmission electron microscopy,” Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 2, 1–28.
  154. Karpov, S. Yu., 1998, “Suppression of phase separation in InGaN due to elastic strain,” MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res. 3, 16.
  155. Katnagallu, Shyam, et al., 2018, “Impact of local electrostatic field rearrangement on field ionization,” J. Phys. D 51, 105601.
  156. Kellogg, G. L., and T. T. Tsong, 1980, “Pulsed-laser atom-probe field-ion microscopy,” J. Appl. Phys. 51, 1184–1193.
  157. Kent, P. R. C., and A. Zunger, 2001, “Carrier localization and the origin of luminescence in cubic InGaN alloys,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 1977–1979.
  158. Khan, Kamruzzaman, Kai Sun, Christian Wurm, Kanak Datta, Parag B. Deotare, and Elaheh Ahmadi, 2021, “Strain-induced formation of self-assembled InGaN/GaN superlattices in nominal InGaN films grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy,” Phys. Rev. Mater. 5, 124606.
  159. Khromov, S., D. Gregorius, R. Schiller, J. Lösch, M. Wahl, M. Kopnarski, H. Amano, B. Monemar, L. Hultman, and G. Pozina, 2014, “Atom probe tomography study of Mg-doped GaN layers,” Nanotechnology 25, 275701.
  160. Kim, Honggyu, Yifei Meng, Jean-Luc Rouviére, Dieter Isheim, David N. Seidman, and Jian-Min Zuo, 2013, “Atomic resolution mapping of interfacial intermixing and segregation in InAs/GaSb superlattices: A correlative study,” J. Appl. Phys. 113, 103511.
  161. Kim, Wonjong, Lucas Güniat, Anna Fontcuberta i Morral, and Valerio Piazza, 2021, “Doping challenges and pathways to industrial scalability of III-V nanowire arrays,” Appl. Phys. Rev. 8, 011304.
  162. Kingham, David R., 1982, “The post-ionization of field evaporated ions: A theoretical explanation of multiple charge states,” Surf. Sci. 116, 273–301.
  163. Kirchhofer, Rita, David R. Diercks, Brian P. Gorman, Jon F. Ihlefeld, Paul G. Kotula, Christopher T. Shelton, and Geoff L. Brennecka, 2014, “Quantifying compositional homogeneity in Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 using atom probe tomography,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 97, 2677–2697.
  164. Kobak, J., et al., 2014, “Designing quantum dots for solotronics,” Nat. Commun. 5, 3191.
  165. Kodzuka, M., T. Ohkubo, K. Hono, F. Matsukura, and H. Ohno, 2009, “3DAP analysis of (Ga,Mn)As diluted magnetic semiconductor thin film,” Ultramicroscopy, 109, 644–648.
  166. Koelling, S., A. Li, A. Cavalli, S. Assali, D. Car, S. Gazibegovic, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, and P. M. Koenraad, 2017, “Atom-by-atom analysis of semiconductor nanowires with parts per million sensitivity,” Nano Lett. 17, 599–605.
  167. Koenraad, P. M., D. M. Bruls, J. H. Davies, S. P. A. Gill, Fei Long, M. Hopkinson, M. Skolnick, and J. H. Wolter, 2003, “Composition profiling at the atomic scale in III-V nanostructures by cross-sectional STM,” Physica (Amsterdam) 17E, 526–532.
  168. Koenraad, Paul M., and Michael E. Flatté, 2011, “Single dopants in semiconductors,” Nat. Mater. 10, 91–100.
  169. Korakakis, D., K. F. Ludwig, Jr., and T. D. Moustakas, 1997, “Long range order in AlxGa1−xN films grown by molecular beam epitaxy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 72–74.
  170. Kotulak, Nicole A., et al., 2018, “3D imaging compositional map in one-step growth of CH3 NH3 PbI3,” in Proceedings of the IEEE 7th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (WCPEC) (A Joint Conference of 45th IEEE PVSC, 28th PVSEC, and 34th EU PVSEC), Waikoloa Village, HI, 2018 (IEEE, New York), pp. 0485–0489, 10.1109/PVSC.2018.8547348.
  171. Krammel, C. M., L. Nattermann, E. Sterzer, K. Volz, and P. M. Koenraad, 2018, “Structural and electronic properties of isovalent boron atoms in GaAs,” J. Appl. Phys. 123, 161589.
  172. Krammel, C. M., M. Roy, F. J. Tilley, P. A. Maksym, L. Y. Zhang, P. Wang, K. Wang, Y. Y. Li, S. M. Wang, and P. M. Koenraad, 2017, “Incorporation of Bi atoms in InP studied at the atomic scale by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Phys. Rev. Mater. 1, 034606.
  173. Krause, Florian F., and Andreas Rosenauer, 2024, “Atom counting based on Voronoi averaged STEM intensities using a crosstalk correction scheme,” Ultramicroscopy 256, 113867.
  174. Kumar, Ashutosh, and Tadakatsu Ohkubo, 2020, “Combined APT and STEM analyses,” in Characterization of Defects and Deep Levels for GaN Power Devices, edited by Tetsuo Narita and Tetsu Kachi (AIP Publishing, Melville, NY).
  175. Kumar, Ashutosh, Jun Uzuhashi, Tadakatsu Ohkubo, Ryo Tanaka, Shinya Takashima, Masaharu Edo, and Kazuhiro Hono, 2019, “Atomic-scale quantitative analysis of implanted Mg in annealed GaN layers on free-standing GaN substrates,” J. Appl. Phys. 126, 235704.
  176. Landrock, S., K. Urban, and Ph. Ebert, 2006, “Spontaneous 2D Accumulation of Charged Be Dopants in GaAs p−n Superlattices,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 076101.
  177. Larson, David J., Ty J. Prosa, Robert M. Ulfig, Brian P. Geiser, and Thomas F. Kelly, 2013, “Data processing and reconstruction,” in Local Electrode Atom Probe Tomography (Springer, New York), pp. 109–162.
  178. Laügt, M., E. Bellet-Amalric, P. Ruterana, and F. Omnès, 2003, “Ordering in undoped hexagonal AlxGa1−xN grown on sapphire (0001) with 0.09<x<0.247,” Phys. Status Solidi (b) 236, 729–739.
  179. Le, Binh H., Songrui Zhao, Xianhe Liu, Steffi Y. Woo, Gianluigi A. Botton, and Zetian Mi, 2016, “Controlled coalescence of AlGaN nanowire arrays: An architecture for nearly dislocation-free planar ultraviolet photonic device applications,” Adv. Mater. 28, 8446–8454.
  180. Lee, Donghun, and Jay Gupta, 2019, “Perspectives on deterministic control of quantum point defects by scanned probes,” Nanophotonics 8, 2033–2040.
  181. Lee, Ja Kyung, et al., 2018, “Strain-induced indium clustering in non-polar a-plane InGaN quantum wells,” Acta Mater. 145, 109–122.
  182. Lefebvre, Williams, Francois Vurpillot, and Xavier Sauvage, 2016, Eds., Atom Probe Tomography: Put Theory into Practice (Academic Press, New York).
  183. Lefebvre-Ulrikson, W., G. Da Costa, L. Rigutti, and I. Blum, 2016, “Data mining,” in Atom Probe Tomography: Put Theory into Practice, edited by W. Lefebvre, F. Vurpillot, and X. Sauvage (Academic Press, New York), Chap. 9, pp. 279–317.
  184. Lemaitre, A., G. Patriarche, and F. Glas, 2004, “Composition profiling of InAs/GaAs quantum dots,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 3717–3719.
  185. Lenz, A., F. Genz, H. Eisele, L. Ivanova, R. Timm, D. Franke, H. Künzel, U. W. Pohl, and M. Dähne, 2009, “Formation of InAs/InGaAsP quantum-dashes on InP(001),” Appl. Phys. Lett. 95, 203105.
  186. Lenz, A., E. Tournié, J. Schuppang, M. Dähne, and H. Eisele, 2013, “Atomic structure of tensile-strained GaAs/GaSb(001) nanostructures,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 102, 102105.
  187. Lenz, Andrea, et al., 2010, “Atomic structure of buried InAs sub-monolayer depositions in GaAs,” Appl. Phys. Express 3, 105602.
  188. Lenz, Andrea, et al., 2011, “Atomic structure and optical properties of InAs submonolayer depositions in GaAs,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 29, 04D104.
  189. Leroux, M., P. Vennéguès, S. Dalmasso, M. Benaissa, E. Feltin, P. de Mierry, B. Beaumont, B. Damilano, N. Grandjean, and P. Gibart, 2002, “Structural defects and relation with optoelectronic properties in highly Mg-doped GaN,” Phys. Status Solidi (a) 192, 394–400.
  190. Leroux, M., P. Vennéguès, S. Dalmasso, P. de Mierry, P. Lorenzini, B. Damilano, B. Beaumont, P. Gibart, and J. Massies, 2004, “Pyramidal defects in highly Mg-doped GaN: Atomic structure and influence on optoelectronic properties,” Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 27, 259–262.
  191. Leshchenko, Egor D., and Nickolay V. Sibirev, 2024, “Recent advances in the growth and compositional modelling of III-V nanowire heterostructures,” Nanomaterials 14, 1816.
  192. Li, Chen, Jonathan Poplawsky, Yanfa Yan, and Stephen J. Pennycook, 2017, “Understanding individual defects in CdTe thin-film solar cells via STEM: From atomic structure to electrical activity,” Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process., 65, 64–76.
  193. Li, Chi-Kang, Marco Piccardo, Li-Shuo Lu, Svitlana Mayboroda, Lucio Martinelli, Jacques Peretti, James S. Speck, Claude Weisbuch, Marcel Filoche, and Yuh-Renn Wu, 2017, “Localization landscape theory of disorder in semiconductors. III. Application to carrier transport and recombination in light emitting diodes,” Phys. Rev. B 95, 144206.
  194. Li, Yue, et al., 2023, “Quantitative three-dimensional imaging of chemical short-range order via machine learning enhanced atom probe tomography,” Nat. Commun. 14, 7410.
  195. Licata, Olivia G., Scott Broderick, Emma Rocco, Fatemeh Shahedipour-Sandvik, and Baishakhi Mazumder, 2021, “Dopant-defect interactions in Mg-doped GaN via atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 119, 032102.
  196. Lita, B., M. Beck, R. S. Goldman, G. A. Seryogin, S. A. Nikishin, and H. Temkin, 2000, “Structural and compositional variations in ZnSnP2/GaAs superlattices,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 2894–2896.
  197. Lita, B., R. S. Goldman, J. D. Phillips, and P. K. Bhattacharya, 1999a, “Interdiffusion and surface segregation in stacked self-assembled InAs/GaAs quantum dots,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 2797–2799.
  198. Lita, B., R. S. Goldman, J. D. Phillips, and P. K. Bhattacharya, 1999b, “Nanometer-scale studies of vertical organization and evolution of stacked self-assembled InAs/GaAs quantum dots,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 2824–2826.
  199. Liu, Fang, Li Huang, Lisa M. Porter, Robert F. Davis, and Daniel K. Schreiber, 2016, “Analysis of compositional uniformity in AlxGa1−xN thin films using atom probe tomography and electron microscopy,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 34, 041510.
  200. Liu, N., J. Tersoff, O. Baklenov, A. L. Holmes, and C. K. Shih, 2000, “Nonuniform Composition Profile in In0.5Ga0.5As Alloy Quantum Dots,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 334–337.
  201. Liu, Yi, Johan V. Knutsson, Nathaniel Wilson, Elliot Young, Sebastian Lehmann, Kimberly A. Dick, Chris J. Palmstrøm, Anders Mikkelsen, and Rainer Timm, 2021, “Self-selective formation of ordered 1D and 2D GaBi structures on wurtzite GaAs nanowire surfaces,” Nat. Commun. 12, 5990.
  202. Mancini, L., D. Hernández-Maldonado, W. Lefebvre, J. Houard, I. Blum, F. Vurpillot, J. Eymery, C. Durand, M. Tchernycheva, and L. Rigutti, 2016, “Multi-microscopy study of the influence of stacking faults and three-dimensional In distribution on the optical properties of m-plane InGaN quantum wells grown on microwire sidewalls,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 042102.
  203. Mancini, L., et al., 2014a, “Three-dimensional nanoscale study of Al segregation and quantum dot formation in GaAs/AlGaAs core-shell nanowires,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 105, 243106.
  204. Mancini, L., et al., 2014b, “Composition of wide bandgap semiconductor materials and nanostructures measured by atom probe tomography and its dependence on the surface electric field,” J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 24136–24151.
  205. Mancini, Lorenzo, Florian Moyon, David Hernàndez-Maldonado, Ivan Blum, Jonathan Houard, Williams Lefebvre, François Vurpillot, Aparna Das, Eva Monroy, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2017, “Carrier localization in GaN/AlN quantum dots as revealed by three-dimensional multimicroscopy,” Nano Lett. 17, 4261–4269.
  206. Marquis, Emmanuelle A., and Jonathan M. Hyde, 2010, “Applications of atom-probe tomography to the characterisation of solute behaviours,” Mater. Sci. Eng. R 69, 37–62.
  207. Mascarenhas, Angelo, 2002, Ed., Spontaneous Ordering in Semiconductor Alloys (Springer, Boston).
  208. Massabuau, Fabien C.-P., Sneha L. Rhode, Matthew K. Horton, Thomas J. O’Hanlon, András Kovács, Marcin S. Zielinski, Menno J. Kappers, Rafal E. Dunin-Borkowski, Colin J. Humphreys, and Rachel A. Oliver, 2017, “Dislocations in AlGaN: Core structure, atom segregation, and optical properties,” Nano Lett. 17, 4846–4852.
  209. Mauger, S. J. C., J. Bocquel, P. M. Koenraad, C. E. Feeser, N. D. Parashar, and B. W. Wessels, 2015, “Mn doped InSb studied at the atomic scale by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 107, 222102.
  210. Mauger, S. J. C., M. Bozkurt, P. M. Koenraad, A. D. Giddings, R. P. Campion, and B. L. Gallagher, 2011, “Short-period (Ga,Mn)As/(Al,Ga)As multilayer structures studied by cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Phys. Rev. B 84, 104432.
  211. Mazumder, Baishakhi, Stephen W. Kaun, Jing Lu, Stacia Keller, Umesh K. Mishra, and James S. Speck, 2013, “Atom probe analysis of AlN interlayers in AlGaN/AlN/GaN heterostructures,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 102, 111603.
  212. Mead, Christopher, Chunyi Huang, Nebile Isik Goktas, Elisabetta Maria Fiordaliso, Ray R. LaPierre, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2023, “Detection of Be dopant pairing in VLS grown GaAs nanowires with twinning superlattices,” Nanotechnology 34, 385701.
  213. Meuret, Sophie, Toon Coenen, Hans Zeijlemaker, Michael Latzel, Silke Christiansen, Sonia Conesa-Boj, and Albert Polman, 2017, “Photon bunching reveals single-electron cathodoluminescence excitation efficiency in InGaN quantum wells,” Phys. Rev. B 96, 035308.
  214. Meuret, Sophie, Luiz H. G. Tizei, Thomas Auzelle, Rudee Songmuang, Bruno Daudin, Bruno Gayral, and Mathieu Kociak, 2016, “Lifetime measurements well below the optical diffraction limit,” ACS Photonics 3, 1157–1163.
  215. Miao, Jianwei, Peter Ercius, and Simon J. L. Billinge, 2016, “Atomic electron tomography: 3D structures without crystals,” Science 353, aaf2157.
  216. Mikkelsen, Anders, and Edvin Lundgren, 2005, “Cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy studies of novel III-V semiconductor structures,” Prog. Surf. Sci. 80, 1–25.
  217. Mikkelsen, Anders, Niklas Sköld, Lassana Ouattara, and Edvin Lundgren, 2006, “Nanowire growth and dopants studied by cross-sectional scanning tunnelling microscopy,” Nanotechnology 17, S362.
  218. Miller, Michael K., and Richard G. Forbes, 2014a, “Field evaporation and related topics,” in Atom-Probe Tomography: The Local Electrode Atom Probe (Springer, Boston), pp. 111–187.
  219. Miller, Michael K., and Richard G. Forbes, 2014b, “Introduction to atom-probe tomography,” in Atom-Probe Tomography: The Local Electrode Atom Probe (Springer, Boston), pp. 1–49.
  220. Mishra, Tara P., et al., 2021, “Unlocking the origin of compositional fluctuations in InGaN light emitting diodes,” Phys. Rev. Mater. 5, 024605.
  221. Miyamoto, Yoshiya, et al., 2021, “Crystal growth and characterization of n-GaN in a multiple quantum shell nanowire-based light emitter with a tunnel junction,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 37883–37892.
  222. Mlinar, V., M. Bozkurt, J. M. Ulloa, M. Ediger, G. Bester, A. Badolato, P. M. Koenraad, R. J. Warburton, and A. Zunger, 2009, “Structure of quantum dots as seen by excitonic spectroscopy versus structural characterization: Using theory to close the loop,” Phys. Rev. B 80, 165425.
  223. Moniri, Saman, et al., 2023, “Three-dimensional atomic structure and local chemical order of medium- and high-entropy nanoalloys,” Nature (London) 624, 564–569.
  224. Moody, Michael P., Baptiste Gault, Leigh T. Stephenson, Daniel Haley, and Simon P. Ringer, 2009, “Qualification of the tomographic reconstruction in atom probe by advanced spatial distribution map techniques,” Ultramicroscopy 109, 815–824.
  225. Moody, Michael P., Leigh T. Stephenson, Anna V. Ceguerra, and Simon P. Ringer, 2008, “Quantitative binomial distribution analyses of nanoscale like-solute atom clustering and segregation in atom probe tomography data,” Microsc. Res. Tech. 71, 542–550.
  226. Morkötter, S., et al., 2015, “Demonstration of confined electron gas and steep-slope behavior in delta-doped GaAs-AlGaAs core-shell nanowire transistors,” Nano Lett. 15, 3295–3302.
  227. Morón, M. C., and S. Hull, 2003, “Order-disorder phase transition in Zn1−xMnxGa2Se4: Long-range order parameter versus x,” Phys. Rev. B 67, 125208.
  228. Mouti, Anas, Jean-Luc Rouvière, Marco Cantoni, Jean-Francois Carlin, Eric Feltin, Nicolas Grandjean, and Pierre Stadelmann, 2011, “Stress-modulated composition in the vicinity of dislocations in nearly lattice matched AlxIn1−xN/GaN heterostructures: A possible explanation of defect insensitivity,” Phys. Rev. B 83, 195309.
  229. Müller, M., A. Cerezo, G. D. W. Smith, L. Chang, and S. S. A. Gerstl, 2008, “Atomic scale characterization of buried InxGa1−xAs quantum dots using pulsed laser atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 233115.
  230. Müller, M., D. W. Saxey, G. D. W. Smith, and B. Gault, 2011, “Some aspects of the field evaporation behaviour of GaSb,” Ultramicroscopy 111, 487–492.
  231. Müller, M., G. D. W. Smith, B. Gault, and C. R. M. Grovenor, 2012, “Phase separation in thick InGaN layers—A quantitative, nanoscale study by pulsed laser atom probe tomography,” Acta Mater. 60, 4277–4285.
  232. Müller, Marcus, et al., 2016, “Nanoscopic insights into InGaN/GaN core-shell nanorods: Structure, composition, and luminescence,” Nano Lett. 16, 5340–5346.
  233. Nakamura, Shuji, 2015, “Nobel Lecture: Background story of the invention of efficient blue InGaN light emitting diodes,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 87, 1139–1151.
  234. Nakamura, Shuji, Naruhito Iwasa, Masayuki Senoh Masayuki Senoh, and Takashi Mukai Takashi Mukai, 1992, “Hole compensation mechanism of p-type GaN films,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, 1258.
  235. Nakamura, Shuji, Takashi Mukai, Masayuki Senoh Masayuki Senoh, and Naruhito Iwasa Naruhito Iwasa, 1992, “Thermal annealing effects on p-type Mg-doped GaN films,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, L139.
  236. Nakano, T., et al., 2020, “Screw dislocation that converts p-type GaN to n-type: Microscopic study on Mg condensation and leakage current in p-n diodes,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 117, 012105.
  237. Nam, A. J., A. Teren, T. A. Lusby, and A. J. Melmed, 1995, “Benign making of sharp tips for STM and FIM: Pt, Ir, Au, Pd, and Rh,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 13, 1556–1559.
  238. Ndiaye, Samba, Christian Bacchi, Benjamin Klaes, Mariaconcetta Canino, François Vurpillot, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2023, “Surface dynamics of field evaporation in silicon carbide,” J. Phys. Chem. C 127, 5467–5478.
  239. Ndiaye, Samba, Sébastien Duguay, François Vurpillot, Chiara Carraro, Gianluigi Maggioni, Enrico Di Russo, Davide De Salvador, Enrico Napolitani, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2023, “Atom probe tomography of hyper-doped Ge layers synthesized by Sb in-diffusion by pulsed laser melting,” Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 164, 107641.
  240. Ndiaye, Samba, Caroline Elias, Aïssatou Diagne, Hélène Rotella, Frédéric Georgi, Maxime Hugues, Yvon Cordier, François Vurpillot, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2023, “Alloy distribution and compositional metrology of epitaxial ScAlN by atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 123, 162102.
  241. Neubauer, B., A. Rosenauer, D. Gerthsen, O. Ambacher, and M. Stutzmann, 1998, “Analysis of composition fluctuations on an atomic scale in Al0.25Ga0.75N by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 930–932.
  242. Nicholas, Robert, David Diercks, and Matthew Kane, 2012, “Atom probe tomography study of GaMnN thin films,” Phys. Status Solidi (c) 9, 723–726.
  243. Nix, Foster C., and William Shockley, 1938, “Order-disorder transformations in alloys,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 10, 1–71.
  244. Oberdorfer, Christian, Sebastian Manuel Eich, Martin Lütkemeyer, and Guido Schmitz, 2015, “Applications of a versatile modelling approach to 3D atom probe simulations,” Ultramicroscopy, 159, 184–194.
  245. O’Donnell, K. P., R. W. Martin, and P. G. Middleton, 1999, “Origin of Luminescence from InGaN Diodes,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 237–240.
  246. Offermans, P., P. M. Koenraad, J. H. Wolter, K. Pierz, M. Roy, and P. A. Maksym, 2005, “Atomic-scale structure and photoluminescence of InAs quantum dots in GaAs and AlAs,” Phys. Rev. B 72, 165332.
  247. Offermans, P., P. M. Koenraad, J. H. Wolter, J. D. Song, Jong Min Kim, Seong Ju Bae, and Yong Tak Lee, 2003, “Annealing of InGaAlAs digital alloy studied with scanning-tunneling microscopy and filled-states topography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 1191–1193.
  248. Ohmann, Robin, Luis K. Ono, Hui-Seon Kim, Haiping Lin, Michael V. Lee, Youyong Li, Nam-Gyu Park, and Yabing Qi, 2015, “Real-space imaging of the atomic structure of organic-inorganic perovskite,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 16049–16054.
  249. Oliver, R. A., S. E. Bennett, T. Zhu, D. J. Beesley, M. J. Kappers, D. W. Saxey, A. Cerezo, and C. J. Humphreys, 2010, “Microstructural origins of localization in InGaN quantum wells,” J. Phys. D 43, 354003.
  250. Ophus, Colin, 2019, “Four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM): From scanning nanodiffraction to ptychography and beyond,” Microsc. Microanal. 25, 563–582.
  251. Pal, Arnab, Shuo Zhang, Tanmay Chavan, Kunjesh Agashiwala, Chao-Hui Yeh, Wei Cao, and Kaustav Banerjee, 2023, “Quantum-engineered devices based on 2D materials for next-generation information processing and storage,” Adv. Mater. 35, 2109894.
  252. Pantzas, K., and G. Patriarche, 2021, “Experimental quantification of atomically-resolved HAADF-STEM images using EDX,” Ultramicroscopy 220, 113152.
  253. Pennycook, S. J., and D. E. Jesson, 1991, “High-resolution Z-contrast imaging of crystals,” Ultramicroscopy 37, 14–38.
  254. Pennycook, S. J., M. Varela, C. J. D. Hetherington, and A. I. Kirkland, 2006, “Materials advances through aberration-corrected electron microscopy,” MRS Bull. 31, 36–43.
  255. Perea, Daniel Eddie, 2009, “Dopant mapping in semiconductor nanostructures using atom probe tomography,” Ph.D. thesis (Northwestern University).
  256. Persson, Axel R., Alexis Papamichail, Vanya Darakchieva, and Per O. A. Persson, 2022, “Mg segregation at inclined facets of pyramidal inversion domains in GaN: Mg,” Sci. Rep. 12, 17987.
  257. Philippe, T., F. De Geuser, S. Duguay, W. Lefebvre, O. Cojocaru-Mirédin, G. Da Costa, and D. Blavette, 2009, “Clustering and nearest neighbour distances in atom-probe tomography,” Ultramicroscopy 109, 1304–1309.
  258. Philippe, Thomas, Maria Gruber, François Vurpillot, and D. Blavette, 2010, “Clustering and local magnification effects in atom probe tomography: A statistical approach,” Microsc. Microanal. 16, 643–648.
  259. Philips, B. A., A. G. Norman, T. Y. Seong, S. Mahajan, G. R. Booker, M. Skowronski, J. P. Harbison, and V. G. Keramidas, 1994, “Mechanism for CuPt-type ordering in mixed III-V epitaxial layers,” J. Cryst. Growth 140, 249–263.
  260. Piccardo, Marco, Chi-Kang Li, Yuh-Renn Wu, James S. Speck, Bastien Bonef, Robert M. Farrell, Marcel Filoche, Lucio Martinelli, Jacques Peretti, and Claude Weisbuch, 2017, “Localization landscape theory of disorder in semiconductors. II. Urbach tails of disordered quantum well layers,” Phys. Rev. B 95, 144205.
  261. Pierret, A., C. Bougerol, M. den Hertog, B. Gayral, M. Kociak, H. Renevier, and B. Daudin, 2013, “Structural and optical properties of AlxGa1−xN nanowires,” Phys. Status Solidi RRL 7, 868–873.
  262. Pinos, A., V. Liuolia, S. Marcinkevičius, J. Yang, R. Gaska, and M. S. Shur, 2011, “Localization potentials in AlGaN epitaxial films studied by scanning near-field optical spectroscopy,” J. Appl. Phys. 109, 113516.
  263. Plantenga, R. C., V. R. Kortan, Toshiyuki Kaizu, Yukihiro Harada, Takashi Kita, M. E. Flatté, and P. M. Koenraad, 2017, “Spatially resolved electronic structure of an isovalent nitrogen center in GaAs,” Phys. Rev. B 96, 155210.
  264. Poliani, E., M. R. Wagner, J. S. Reparaz, M. Mandl, M. Strassburg, X. Kong, A. Trampert, C. M. Sotomayor Torres, A. Hoffmann, and J. Maultzsch, 2013, “Nanoscale imaging of InN segregation and polymorphism in single vertically aligned InGaN/GaN multi quantum well nanorods by tip-enhanced Raman scattering,” Nano Lett. 13, 3205–3212.
  265. Prohl, C., B. Höpfner, J. Grabowski, M. Dähne, and H. Eisele, 2010, “Atomic structure and strain of the InAs wetting layer growing on GaAs(001)-c(4×4),” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 28, C5E13–C5E21.
  266. Prosa, T. J., P. H. Clifton, H. Zhong, A. Tyagi, R. Shivaraman, S. P. DenBaars, S. Nakamura, and J. S. Speck, 2011, “Atom probe analysis of interfacial abruptness and clustering within a single InxGa1−xN quantum well device on semipolar (101¯1¯) GaN substrate,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 98, 191903.
  267. Qu, Jiangtao, Wonsik Choi, Parsian Katal Mohseni, Xiuling Li, Yingjie Zhang, Hansheng Chen, Simon Ringer, and Rongkun Zheng, 2016, “Direct observation of dopants distribution and diffusion in GaAs planar nanowires with atom probe tomography,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 26244–26250.
  268. Queisser, Hans J., and Eugene E. Haller, 1998, “Defects in semiconductors: Some fatal, some vital,” Science 281, 945–950.
  269. Rao, M., D. Kim, and S. Mahajan, 2004, “Compositional dependence of phase separation in InGaN layers,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 1961–1963.
  270. Reusch, T. C. G., M. Wenderoth, A. J. Heinrich, K. J. Engel, N. Quaas, K. Sauthoff, R. G. Ulbrich, E. R. Weber, K. Uchida, and W. Wegscheider, 2000, “Influence of short-range ordering on roughness of (AlGa)As interfaces studied with cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 3882–3884.
  271. Rhode, S. K., M. K. Horton, M. J. Kappers, S. Zhang, C. J. Humphreys, R. O. Dusane, S. L. Sahonta, and M. A. Moram, 2013, “Mg Doping Affects Dislocation Core Structures in GaN,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 025502.
  272. Rigutti, L., G. Jacopin, L. Largeau, E. Galopin, A. De Luna Bugallo, F. H. Julien, J.-C. Harmand, F. Glas, and M. Tchernycheva, 2011, “Correlation of optical and structural properties of GaN/AlN core-shell nanowires,” Phys. Rev. B 83, 155320.
  273. Rigutti, L., L. Mancini, D. Hernández-Maldonado, W. Lefebvre, E. Giraud, R. Butté, J. F. Carlin, N. Grandjean, D. Blavette, and F. Vurpillot, 2016, “Statistical correction of atom probe tomography data of semiconductor alloys combined with optical spectroscopy: The case of Al0.25Ga0.75N,” J. Appl. Phys. 119, 105704.
  274. Rigutti, L., et al., 2016, “Statistical nanoscale study of localised radiative transitions in GaN/AlGaN quantum wells and AlGaN epitaxial layers,” Semicond. Sci. Technol. 31, 095009.
  275. Rigutti, Lorenzo, and Didier Blavette, 2019, “Three-dimensional atomic-scale investigation of defects in semiconductors by atom probe tomography,” in Characterisation and Control of Defects in Semiconductors, Materials, Circuits and Devices, edited by Filip Tuomisto (Institution of Engineering and Technology, Stevenage, England), pp. 417–450.
  276. Rigutti, Lorenzo, et al., 2014, “Correlation of microphotoluminescence spectroscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and atom probe tomography on a single nano-object containing an InGaN/GaN multiquantum well system,” Nano Lett. 14, 107–114.
  277. Riley, James R., Rodrigo A. Bernal, Qiming Li, Horacio D. Espinosa, George T. Wang, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2012, “Atom probe tomography of a-axis GaN nanowires: Analysis of nonstoichiometric evaporation behavior,” ACS Nano 6, 3898–3906.
  278. Riley, James R., Theeradetch Detchprohm, Christian Wetzel, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2014, “On the reliable analysis of indium mole fraction within InxGa1−xN quantum wells using atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 152102.
  279. Riley, James R., Sonal Padalkar, Qiming Li, Ping Lu, Daniel D. Koleske, Jonathan J. Wierer, George T. Wang, and Lincoln J. Lauhon, 2013, “Three-dimensional mapping of quantum wells in a GaN/InGaN core-shell nanowire light-emitting diode array,” Nano Lett. 13, 4317–4325.
  280. Rivas, Nicolás Alfonso, Aslihan Babayigit, Bert Conings, Torsten Schwarz, Andreas Sturm, Alba Garzón Manjón, Oana Cojocaru-Mirédin, Baptiste Gault, and Frank Uwe Renner, 2020, “Cryo-focused ion beam preparation of perovskite based solar cells for atom probe tomography,” PLoS One 15, e0227920.
  281. Rocco, Emma, et al., 2020, “Hillock assisted p-type enhancement in N-polar GaN:Mg films grown by MOCVD,” Sci. Rep. 10, 1426.
  282. Rolland, N., D. J. Larson, B. P. Geiser, S. Duguay, F. Vurpillot, and D. Blavette, 2015, “An analytical model accounting for tip shape evolution during atom probe analysis of heterogeneous materials,” Ultramicroscopy, 159, 195–201.
  283. Rolland, Nicolas, François Vurpillot, Sébastien Duguay, and Didier Blavette, 2015, “Dynamic evolution and fracture of multilayer field emitters in atom probe tomography: A new interpretation,” Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 72, 21001.
  284. Rosenauer, Andreas, et al., 2011, “Composition mapping in InGaN by scanning transmission electron microscopy,” Ultramicroscopy 111, 1316–1327.
  285. Rouvière, J. L., and E. Sarigiannidou, 2005, “Theoretical discussions on the geometrical phase analysis,” Ultramicroscopy 106, 1–17.
  286. Royo, Miquel, Marta De Luca, Riccardo Rurali, and Ilaria Zardo, 2017, “A review on III-V core-multishell nanowires: Growth, properties, and applications,” J. Phys. D 50, 143001.
  287. Ruterana, P., G. Nouet, W. Van der Stricht, I. Moerman, and L. Considine, 1998, “Chemical ordering in wurtzite InxGa1−xN layers grown on (0001) sapphire by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 1742–1744.
  288. Sälker, Janis A., Raheleh Hadian, Jochen M. Schneider, and Marcus Hans, 2023, “Computer vision assisted decomposition analysis of atom probe tomography data,” J. Phys. D 56, 475301.
  289. Sánchez, C. G., A. Y. Iozovoi, and A. Alavi, 2004, “Field-evaporation from first-principles,” Mol. Phys. 102, 1045–1055.
  290. Sarker, Jith, Tinh Binh Tran, Feras AlQatari, Che-Hao Liao, Xiaohang Li, and Baishakhi Mazumder, 2020, “Nanoscale compositional analysis of wurtzite BAlN thin film using atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 117, 232103.
  291. Sauty, Mylène, Natalia Alyabyeva, Cheyenne Lynsky, Yi Chao Chow, Shuji Nakamura, James S. Speck, Yves Lassailly, Alistair C. H. Rowe, Claude Weisbuch, and Jacques Peretti, 2023, “Probing local emission properties in InGaN/GaN quantum wells by scanning tunneling luminescence microscopy,” Phys. Status Solidi (b) 260, 2200365.
  292. Saxey, D. W., 2011, “Correlated ion analysis and the interpretation of atom probe mass spectra,” Ultramicroscopy 111, 473–479.
  293. Scappucci, Giordano, Giovanni Capellini, Wolfgang M. Klesse, and Michelle Y. Simmons, 2013, “New avenues to an old material: Controlled nanoscale doping of germanium,” Nanoscale 5, 2600–2615.
  294. Schnedler, M., V. Portz, U. Semmler, M. Moors, R. Waser, R. E. Dunin-Borkowski, and Ph. Ebert, 2018, “Resistive switching in optoelectronic III-V materials based on deep traps,” Sci. Rep. 8, 9483.
  295. Schulz, S., et al., 2015, “Structural, electronic, and optical properties of m-plane InGaN/GaN quantum wells: Insights from experiment and atomistic theory,” Phys. Rev. B 92, 235419.
  296. Shin, B., A. Lin, K. Lappo, R. S. Goldman, M. C. Hanna, S. Francoeur, A. G. Norman, and A. Mascarenhas, 2002, “Initiation and evolution of phase separation in heteroepitaxial InAlAs films,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 3292–3294.
  297. Shin, B., B. Lita, R. S. Goldman, J. D. Phillips, and P. K. Bhattacharya, 2002, “Lateral indium-indium pair correlations within the wetting layers of buried InAs/GaAs quantum dots,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 1423–1425.
  298. Shivaraman, Ravi, Y. Kawaguchi, S. Tanaka, S. P. DenBaars, S. Nakamura, and J. S. Speck, 2013, “Comparative analysis of 202¯1 and 202¯1¯ semipolar GaN light emitting diodes using atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 102, 251104.
  299. Silaeva, E. P., L. Arnoldi, M. L. Karahka, B. Deconihout, A. Menand, H. J. Kreuzer, and A. Vella, 2014, “Do dielectric nanostructures turn metallic in high-electric dc fields?” Nano Lett. 14, 6066–6072.
  300. Smakman, E. P., S. Mauger, D. W. Rench, N. Samarth, and P. M. Koenraad, 2014, “Structural, electronic, and magnetic properties of single MnAs nanoclusters in GaAs,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 105, 232405.
  301. Smeeton, T. M., C. J. Humphreys, J. S. Barnard, and M. J. Kappers, 2006, “The impact of electron beam damage on the detection of indium-rich localisation centres in InGaN quantum wells using transmission electron microscopy,” J. Mater. Sci. 41, 2729–2737.
  302. Smeeton, T. M., M. J. Kappers, J. S. Barnard, M. E. Vickers, and C. J. Humphreys, 2003, “Electron-beam-induced strain within InGaN quantum wells: False indium ‘cluster’ detection in the transmission electron microscope,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 5419–5421.
  303. Smith, Arthur R., Kuo-Jen Chao, C. K. Shih, K. A. Anselm, A. Srinivasan, and B. G. Streetman, 1996, “Identification of first and second layer aluminum atoms in dilute AlGaAs using cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 1214–1216.
  304. Stephenson, Leigh T., Michael P. Moody, Peter V. Liddicoat, and Simon P. Ringer, 2007, “New techniques for the analysis of fine-scaled clustering phenomena within atom probe tomography (APT) data,” Microsc. Microanal. 13, 448–463.
  305. Sullivan, G. J., et al., 2005, “Molecular beam epitaxy growth of high quantum efficiency InAs/GaSb superlattice detectors,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 23, 1144–1148.
  306. Sun, Zhiyuan, Ori Hazut, Roie Yerushalmi, Lincoln J. Lauhon, and David N. Seidman, 2018, “Criteria and considerations for preparing atom-probe tomography specimens of nanomaterials utilizing an encapsulation methodology,” Ultramicroscopy 184, 225–233.
  307. Sürgers, Christoph, Martin Wenderoth, K Löser, J. K. Garleff, Rainer G. Ulbrich, M. Lukas, and H. v. Löhneysen, 2013, “Electronic disorder of P- and B-doped Si at the metal-insulator transition investigated by scanning tunnelling microscopy and electronic transport,” New J. Phys. 15, 055009.
  308. Suzuki, Hideji, 1962, “Segregation of solute atoms to stacking faults,” J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 17, 322–325.
  309. Tang, Fengzai, et al., 2015, “Indium clustering in a-plane InGaN quantum wells as evidenced by atom probe tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 106, 072104.
  310. Tang, Fengzai, et al., 2019, “Insight into the impact of atomic- and nano-scale indium distributions on the optical properties of InGaN/GaN quantum well structures grown on m-plane freestanding GaN substrates,” J. Appl. Phys. 125, 225704.
  311. Teichmann, Karen, Martin Wenderoth, Henning Prüser, Klaus Pierz, Hans W. Schumacher, and Rainer G. Ulbrich, 2013, “Harmonic oscillator wave functions of a self-assembled InAs quantum dot measured by scanning tunneling microscopy,” Nano Lett. 13, 3571–3575.
  312. Tersoff, J., and D. R. Hamann, 1985, “Theory of the scanning tunneling microscope,” Phys. Rev. B 31, 805–813.
  313. Timm, R., A. Lenz, H. Eisele, L. Ivanova, M. Dähne, G. Balakrishnan, D. L. Huffaker, I. Farrer, and D. A. Ritchie, 2008, “Quantum ring formation and antimony segregation in GaSb/GaAs nanostructures,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 26, 1492–1503.
  314. Tománek, D., H. J. Kreuzer, and J. H. Block, 1985, “Tight-binding approach to field desorption: N2 on Fe(111),” Surf. Sci. Lett. 157, L315–L322.
  315. Tourbot, G., C. Bougerol, F. Glas, L. F. Zagonel, Z. Mahfoud, S. Meuret, P. Gilet, M. Kociak, B. Gayral, and B. Daudin, 2012, “Growth mechanism and properties of InGaN insertions in GaN nanowires,” Nanotechnology 23, 135703.
  316. Tuomisto, Filip, 2019, Ed., Characterisation and Control of Defects in Semiconductors (Institution of Engineering and Technology, Stevenage, England).
  317. Usami, Shigeyoshi, Norihito Mayama, Kazuya Toda, Atsushi Tanaka, Manato Deki, Shugo Nitta, Yoshio Honda, and Hiroshi Amano, 2019, “Direct evidence of Mg diffusion through threading mixed dislocations in GaN p-n diodes and its effect on reverse leakage current,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 114, 232105.
  318. Van Esch, A., L. Van Bockstal, J. De Boeck, G. Verbanck, A. S. van Steenbergen, P. J. Wellmann, B. Grietens, R. Bogaerts, F. Herlach, and G. Borghs, 1997, “Interplay between the magnetic and transport properties in the III-V diluted magnetic semiconductor Ga1−xMnxAs,” Phys. Rev. B 56, 13103–13112.
  319. Vella, A., 2013, “On the interaction of an ultra-fast laser with a nanometric tip by laser assisted atom probe tomography: A review,” Ultramicroscopy 132, 5–18.
  320. Vennéguès, P., M. Benaissa, B. Beaumont, E. Feltin, P. De Mierry, S. Dalmasso, M. Leroux, and P. Gibart, 2000, “Pyramidal defects in metalorganic vapor phase epitaxial Mg doped GaN,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 880–882.
  321. Vennéguès, P., M. Leroux, S. Dalmasso, M. Benaissa, P. De Mierry, P. Lorenzini, B. Damilano, B. Beaumont, J. Massies, and P. Gibart, 2003, “Atomic structure of pyramidal defects in Mg-doped GaN,” Phys. Rev. B 68, 235214.
  322. Vergel, Franchina, et al., 2021, “Engineering a robust flat band in III-V semiconductor heterostructures,” Nano Lett. 21, 680–685.
  323. von Ardenne, Manfred, 1938, “Das Elektronen-Rastermikroskop [The scanning electron microscope],” Z. Phys. 109, 553–572.
  324. Vurgaftman, I., J. R. Meyer, and L. R. Ram-Mohan, 2001, “Band parameters for III-V compound semiconductors and their alloys,” J. Appl. Phys. 89, 5815–5875.
  325. Vurpillot, F., 2016, “Three-dimensional reconstruction in atom probe tomography: Basics and advanced approaches,” in Atom Probe Tomography: Put Theory into Practice, edited by W. Lefebvre, F. Vurpillot, and X. Sauvage (Academic Press, New York), Chap. 7, pp. 183–249.
  326. Vurpillot, F., J. Houard, A. Vella, and B. Deconihout, 2009, “Thermal response of a field emitter subjected to ultra-fast laser illumination,” J. Phys. D 42, 125502.
  327. Wang, C. A., et al., 2017, “Sensitivity of heterointerfaces on emission wavelength of quantum cascade lasers,” J. Cryst. Growth, 464, 215–220.
  328. Wang, Jianfeng, Erin C. Young, Wan Ying Ho, Bastien Bonef, Tal Margalith, and James S. Speck, 2020, “III-nitride blue light-emitting diodes utilizing hybrid tunnel junction with low excess voltage,” Semicond. Sci. Technol. 35, 125026.
  329. Wang, Shen, Mahsa Sina, Pritesh Parikh, Taylor Uekert, Brian Shahbazian, Arun Devaraj, and Ying Shirley Meng, 2016, “Role of 4-tert-butylpyridine as a hole transport layer morphological controller in perovskite solar cells,” Nano Lett. 16, 5594–5600.
  330. Watson-Parris, D., M. J. Godfrey, P. Dawson, R. A. Oliver, M. J. Galtrey, M. J. Kappers, and C. J. Humphreys, 2011, “Carrier localization mechanisms in InxGa1−xN/GaN quantum wells,” Phys. Rev. B 83, 115321.
  331. Webb, J. L., J. Knutsson, M. Hjort, S. R. McKibbin, S. Lehmann, C. Thelander, K. A. Dick, R. Timm, and A. Mikkelsen, 2017, “Imaging atomic scale dynamics on III-V nanowire surfaces during electrical operation,” Sci. Rep. 7, 12790.
  332. Wei, Su-Huai, and Alex Zunger, 1998, “Fingerprints of CuPt ordering in III-V semiconductor alloys: Valence-band splittings, band-gap reduction, and x-ray structure factors,” Phys. Rev. B 57, 8983–8988.
  333. Weikum, Eric, Abraham Diaz-Damian, Jonathan Houard, Gérald Da Costa, Fabien Delaroche, Angela Vella, Grzegorz Muzioł, Henryk Turski, and Lorenzo Rigutti, 2024, “Microscopic correlation of doping distribution and luminescence in a nitride laser junction by photonic atom probe,” Phys. Rev. Mater. 8, 074603.
  334. Weisbuch, Claude, Shuji Nakamura, Yuh-Renn Wu, and James S. Speck, 2021, “Disorder effects in nitride semiconductors: Impact on fundamental and device properties,” Nanophotonics 10, 3–21.
  335. Winking, L., M. Wenderoth, T. C. G. Reusch, R. G. Ulbrich, P.-J. Wilbrandt, R. Kirchheim, S. Malzer, and G. Döhler, 2005, “Ideal delta doping of carbon in GaAs,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 23, 267–270.
  336. Woo, Steffi Y., Matthieu Bugnet, Hieu P. T. Nguyen, Zetian Mi, and Gianluigi A. Botton, 2015, “Atomic ordering in InGaN alloys within nanowire heterostructures,” Nano Lett. 15, 6413–6418.
  337. Xia, Yu, Markus Karahka, and H. J. Kreuzer, 2015, “Field evaporation of ZnO: A first-principles study,” J. Appl. Phys. 118, 025901.
  338. Xu, Tao, Kimberly A. Dick, Sébastien Plissard, Thanh Hai Nguyen, Younes Makoudi, Maxime Berthe, Jean-Philippe Nys, Xavier Wallart, Bruno Grandidier, and Philippe Caroff, 2012, “Faceting, composition and crystal phase evolution in III-V antimonide nanowire heterostructures revealed by combining microscopy techniques,” Nanotechnology 23, 095702.
  339. Yamaguchi, Yudai, Yuya Kanitani, Yoshihiro Kudo, Jun Uzuhashi, Tadakatsu Ohkubo, Kazuhiro Hono, and Shigetaka Tomiya, 2022, “Atomic diffusion of indium through threading dislocations in InGaN quantum wells,” Nano Lett. 22, 6930–6935.
  340. Yang, Yao, et al., 2021, “Determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of an amorphous solid,” Nature (London) 592, 60–64.
  341. Yi, Wei, et al., 2020, “Mg diffusion and activation along threading dislocations in GaN,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 242103.
  342. Yu, Z. Q., Chong M. Wang, Yingge Du, Suntharampillai Thevuthasan, and Igor Lyubinetsky, 2008, “Reproducible tip fabrication and cleaning for UHV STM,” Ultramicroscopy 108, 873–877.
  343. Zagonel, Luiz Fernando, et al., 2011, “Nanometer scale spectral imaging of quantum emitters in nanowires and its correlation to their atomically resolved structure,” Nano Lett. 11, 568–573.
  344. Zeimer, Ute, et al., 2015, “Spatial inhomogeneities in AlGaN/GaN quantum wells induced by the surface morphology of AlN/sapphire templates,” Semicond. Sci. Technol. 30, 114008.
  345. Zhao, Yuji, Feng Wu, Tsung-Jui Yang, Yuh-Renn Wu, Shuji Nakamura, and James S. Speck, 2014, “Atomic-scale nanofacet structure in semipolar and InGaN single quantum wells,” Appl. Phys. Express 7, 025503.
  346. Zhou, Jihan, et al., 2019, “Observing crystal nucleation in four dimensions using atomic electron tomography,” Nature (London) 570, 500–503.
  347. Zhou, Yuanyuan, Hadas Sternlicht, and Nitin P. Padture, 2019, “Transmission electron microscopy of halide perovskite materials and devices,” Joule 3, 641–661.
  348. Ziatdinov, Maxim, Ondrej Dyck, Artem Maksov, Xufan Li, Xiahan Sang, Kai Xiao, Raymond R. Unocic, Rama Vasudevan, Stephen Jesse, and Sergei V. Kalinin, 2017, “Deep learning of atomically resolved scanning transmission electron microscopy images: Chemical identification and tracking local transformations,” ACS Nano 11, 12742–12752.
  349. Ziman, J. M., 1979, Models of Disorder: The Theoretical Physics of Homogeneously Disordered Systems (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 97, 025006– Published 26 June, 2025
  • Received 20 February 2024
Crossmark - Check for updates button

© 2025 American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation