- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Reviews of Modern Physics

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

White organic light-emitting diodes: Status and perspective

Sebastian Reineke*, Michael Thomschke†, Björn Lüssem, and Karl Leo

Sebastian Reineke*

  • Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA

Michael Thomschke†, Björn Lüssem, and Karl Leo

  • Institut für Angewandte Photophysik, TU Dresden, George-Bähr-Strasse 1, 01062 Dresden, Germany

  • *reineke@mit.edu
  • †Current address: Fraunhofer Research Institution for Organics, Materials and Electronic Devices COMEDD, Maria-Reiche-Strasse 2, 01109 Dresden, Germany.
PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 85, 1245 – Published 30 July, 2013

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.85.1245

Abstract

White organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are ultrathin, large-area light sources made from organic semiconductor materials. Over the past decades, much research has been spent on finding suitable materials to realize highly efficient monochrome and white OLEDs. With their high efficiency, color tunability, and color quality, white OLEDs are emerging as one of the next-generation light sources. In this review, the physics of a variety of device concepts that have been introduced to realize white OLEDs based on both polymer and small-molecule organic materials are discussed. Owing to the fact that about 80% of the internally generated photons are trapped within the thin-film layer structure, a second focus is put on reviewing promising concepts for improved light outcoupling.

View figure in article

Article Text

References (280)

  1. Adachi, C., M. A. Baldo, S. R. Forrest, S. Lamansky, M. E. Thompson, and R. C. Kwong, 2001, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 1622.
  2. Adachi, C., M. A. Baldo, S. R. Forrest, and M. E. Thompson, 2000, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 904.
  3. Adachi, C., M. A. Baldo, M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 2001, J. Appl. Phys. 90, 5048.
  4. Adachi, C., R. C. Kwong, P. Djurovich, V. Adamovich, M. A. Baldo, M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 2001, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 2082.
  5. Adamovich, V., J. Brooks, A. Tamayo, A. M. Alexander, P. I. Djurovich, B. W. D’Andrade, C. Adachi, S. R. Forrest, and M. E. Thompson, 2002, New J. Chem. 26, 1171.
  6. Anikeeva, P. O., J. E. Halpert, M. G. Bawendi, and V. Bulovic, 2007, Nano Lett. 7, 2196.
  7. Anthopoulos, T. D., J. P. J. Markham, E. B. Namdas, I. D. W. Samuel, S. C. Lo, and P. L. Burn, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 4824.
  8. Azuma, T., H. Einhorn, M. Halstead, C. Jerome, J. de Kerf, J. Krtil, W. Münch, E. Barth, J. Ouweitjes, M. Richter, and G. Siljeholm, 1995, CIE Publications 13.3, 1.
  9. Baek, H. I., and C. H. Lee, 2008, J. Phys. D 41, 105101.
  10. Baldo, M. A., C. Adachi, and S. R. Forrest, 2000, Phys. Rev. B 62, 10 967.
  11. Baldo, M. A., and S. R. Forrest, 2000, Phys. Rev. B 62, 10 958.
  12. Baldo, M. A., V. G. Kozlov, P. E. Burrows, S. R. Forrest, V. S. Ban, B. Koene, and M. E. Thompson, 1997, Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 3033.
  13. Baldo, M. A., D. F. O’Brien, M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 1999, Phys. Rev. B 60, 14 422.
  14. Baldo, M. A., D. F. O’Brien, Y. You, A. Shoustikov, S. Sibley, M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 1998, Nature (London) 395, 151.
  15. Baldo, M. A., M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 2000, Nature (London) 403, 750.
  16. Berggren, M., O. Inganas, G. Gustafsson, J. Rasmusson, M. R. Andersson, T. Hjertberg, and O. Wennerstrom, 1994, Nature (London) 372, 444.
  17. Blochwitz, J., M. Pfeiffer, T. Fritz, and K. Leo, 1998, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 729.
  18. Braslavsky, S. E., E. Fron, H. B. Rodriguez, E. S. Roman, G. D. Scholes, G. Schweitzer, B. Valeur, and J. Wirz, 2008, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 7, 1444.
  19. Brütting, W., J. Frischeisen, T. D. Schmidt, B. J. Scholz, and C. Mayr, 2013, Phys. Status Solidi A 210, 44..
  20. Bulovic, V., G. Gu, P. E. Burrows, S. R. Forrest, and M. E. Thompson, 1996, Nature (London) 380, 29.
  21. Burroughes, J. H., D. D. C. Bradley, A. R. Brown, R. N. Marks, K. Mackay, R. H. Friend, P. L. Burns, and A. B. Holmes, 1990, Nature (London) 347, 539.
  22. Burrows, P. E., S. R. Forrest, S. P. Sibley, and M. E. Thompson, 1996, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2959.
  23. Cai, C., S.-J. Su, T. Chiba, H. Sasabe, Y.-J. Pu, K. Nakayama, and J. Kido, 2011a, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 50, 040204.
  24. Cai, C., S.-J. Su, T. Chiba, H. Sasabe, Y.-J. Pu, K. Nakayama, and J. Kido, 2011b, Org. Electron. 12, 843.
  25. Caruge, J. M., J. E. Halpert, V. Wood, V. Bulovic, and M. G. Bawendi, 2008, Nat. Photonics 2, 247.
  26. Castellani, M., and D. Berner, 2007, J. Appl. Phys. 102, 024509.
  27. Chang, C. H., C. C. Chen, C. C. Wu, S. Y. Chang, J. Y. Hung, and Y. Chi, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 266.
  28. Chang, C. H., K. C. Tien, C. C. Chen, M. S. Lin, H. C. Cheng, S. H. Liu, C. C. Wu, J. Y. Hung, Y. C. Chiu, and Y. Chi, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 412.
  29. Chao, C. I., and S. A. Chen, 1998, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 426.
  30. Chen, F. C., Y. Yang, M. E. Thompson, and J. Kido, 2002, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2308.
  31. Chen, S. F., L. L. Deng, J. Xie, L. Peng, L. H. Xie, Q. L. Fan, and W. Huang, 2010, Adv. Mater. 22, 5227.
  32. Cheng, G., T. Fei, Y. Duan, Y. Zhao, Y. G. Ma, and S. Y. Liu, 2010, Opt. Lett. 35, 2436.
  33. Cheng, G., F. Li, Y. Duan, J. Feng, S. Y. Liu, S. Qiu, D. Lin, Y. G. Ma, and S. T. Lee, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 4224.
  34. Cheng, G., Y. F. Zhang, Y. Zhao, Y. Y. Lin, C. Y. Ruan, S. Y. Liu, T. Fei, Y. G. Ma, and Y. X. Cheng, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 043504.
  35. Cheng, G., Y. F. Zhang, Y. Zhao, S. Y. Liu, and Y. G. Ma, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 083512.
  36. Chin, B. D., and C. Lee, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 2061.
  37. Choukri, H., A. Fischer, S. Forget, S. Chenais, M. C. Castex, D. Ades, A. Siove, and B. Geffroy, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 183513.
  38. Chuang, C. Y., P. I. Shih, C. H. Chien, F. I. Wu, and C. F. Shu, 2007, Macromolecules 40, 247.
  39. Chuen, C. H., and Y. T. Tao, 2002, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 4499.
  40. Cocchi, M., J. Kalinowski, V. Fattori, J. A. G. Williams, and L. Murphy, 2009, Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 073309.
  41. Cocchi, M., J. Kalinowski, L. Murphy, J. A. G. Williams, and V. Fattori, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 388.
  42. Cocchi, M., J. Kalinowski, D. Virgili, V. Fattori, S. Develay, and J. A. G. Williams, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 163508.
  43. Coe, S., W. K. Woo, M. Bawendi, and V. Bulovic, 2002, Nature (London) 420, 800.
  44. Connick, W. B., L. M. Henling, R. E. Marsh, and H. B. Gray, 1996, Inorg. Chem. 35, 6261.
  45. D’Andrade, B. W., J. Brooks, V. Adamovich, M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 2002, Adv. Mater. 14, 1032.
  46. D’Andrade, B. W., and J. J. Brown, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 192908.
  47. D’Andrade, B. W., and S. R. Forrest, 2003, J. Appl. Phys. 94, 3101.
  48. D’Andrade, B. W., R. J. Holmes, and S. R. Forrest, 2004, Adv. Mater. 16, 624.
  49. D’Andrade, B. W., M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 2002, Adv. Mater. 14, 147.
  50. Deaton, J. C., M. E. Kondakova, D. J. Giesen, W. J. Begley, and D. Y. Kondakov, 2008, U.S. Patent No. US020080286610A1.
  51. Deaton, J. C., S. C. Switalski, D. Y. Kondakov, R. H. Young, T. D. Pawlik, D. J. Giesen, S. B. Harkins, A. J. M. Miller, S. F. Mickenberg, and J. C. Peters, 2010, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 9499.
  52. Dexter, D. L., 1953, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 836.
  53. Duan, Y., M. Mazzeo, V. Maiorano, F. Mariano, D. Qin, R. Cingolani, and G. Gigli, 2008, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 113304.
  54. Edison, T. A., 1880, U.S. Patent No. US223898 (A).
  55. Endo, A., M. Ogasawara, A. Takahashi, D. Yokoyama, Y. Kato, and C. Adachi, 2009, Adv. Mater. 21, 4802.
  56. Endo, A., K. Sato, K. Yoshimura, T. Kai, A. Kawada, H. Miyazaki, and C. Adachi, 2011, Appl. Phys. Lett. 98, 083302.
  57. Fehse, K., K. Walzer, K. Leo, W. Loevenich, and A. Elschner, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 441.
  58. Feng, J., F. Li, W. B. Gao, S. Y. Liu, Y. Liu, and Y. Wang, 2001, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 3947.
  59. Fick, A., 1995, J. Membr. Sci. 100, 33.
  60. Flaemmich, M., J. Frischeisen, D. S. Setz, D. Michaelis, B. C. Krummacher, T. D. Schmidt, W. Bruetting, and N. Danz, 2011, Org. Electron. 12, 1663.
  61. Forrest, S. R., 1997, Chem. Rev. 97, 1793.
  62. Forrest, S. R., 2004, Nature (London) 428, 911.
  63. Forrest, S. R., D. D. C. Bradley, and M. E. Thompson, 2003, Adv. Mater. 15, 1043.
  64. Förster, T., 1948, Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 437, 55.
  65. Freitag, P., S. Reineke, S. Olthof, M. Furno, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 1676.
  66. Friend, R. H., et al., 1999, Nature (London) 397, 121.
  67. Frischeisen, J., D. Yokoyama, C. Adachi, and W. Bruetting, 2010, Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 073302.
  68. Frischeisen, J., D. Yokoyama, A. Endo, C. Adachi, and W. Bruetting, 2011, Org. Electron. 12, 809.
  69. Furno, M., R. Meerheim, S. Hofmann, B. Luessem, and K. Leo, 2012, Phys. Rev. B 85, 115205.
  70. Furno, M., R. Meerheim, M. Thomschke, S. Hofmann, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 7617, 761716.
  71. Gärtner, G., and H. Greiner, 2008, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 6999, 69992T.
  72. Gather, M. C., R. Alle, H. Becker, and K. Meerholz, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 4460.
  73. Gather, M. C., A. Koehnen, A. Falcou, H. Becker, and K. Meerholz, 2007, Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 191.
  74. Gather, M. C., A. Köhnen, and K. Meerholz, 2011, Adv. Mater. 23, 233.
  75. Giebink, N. C., Y. Sun, and S. R. Forrest, 2006, Org. Electron. 7, 375.
  76. Gohri, V., S. Hofmann, S. Reineke, T. Rosenow, M. Thomschke, M. Levichkova, B. Luessem, and K. Leo, 2011, Org. Electron. 12, 2126.
  77. Gong, X., W. L. Ma, J. C. Ostrowski, G. C. Bazan, D. Moses, and A. J. Heeger, 2004, Adv. Mater. 16, 615.
  78. Gong, X., S. Wang, D. Moses, G. C. Bazan, and A. J. Heeger, 2005, Adv. Mater. 17, 2053.
  79. Goushi, K., R. Kwong, J. J. Brown, H. Sasabe, and C. Adachi, 2004, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 7798.
  80. Goushi, K., K. Yoshida, K. Sato, and C. Adachi, 2012, Nat. Photonics 6, 253.
  81. Granstrom, M., and O. Inganas, 1996, Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 147.
  82. Greenham, N. C., R. H. Friend, and D. D. C. Bradley, 1994, Adv. Mater. 6, 491.
  83. Greiner, H., 2007, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 46, 4125.
  84. Greiner, M. T., M. G. Helander, W.-M. Tang, Z.-B. Wang, J. Qiu, and Z.-H. Lu, 2012, Nat. Mater. 11, 76.
  85. Guo, J., N. Koch, S. L. Bernasek, and J. Schwartz, 2006, Chem. Phys. Lett. 426, 370.
  86. Hamada, Y., C. Adachi, T. Tsutsui, and S. Saito, 1992, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, 1812.
  87. Hamada, Y., T. Sang, H. Fujii, Y. Nishio, H. Takanashi, and K. Shibata, 1996, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Pt. 2 Letters 35, L1339.
  88. Han, L. L., D. F. Yang, W. L. Li, B. Chu, Y. Chen, Z. S. Su, D. Y. Zhang, F. Yan, Z. Z. Hu, and Z. Q. Zhang, 2008, Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 153303.
  89. Harada, K., A. G. Werner, M. Pfeiffer, C. J. Bloom, C. M. Elliott, and K. Leo, 2005, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 036601.
  90. He, G. F., M. Pfeiffer, K. Leo, M. Hofmann, J. Birnstock, R. Pudzich, and J. Salbeck, 2004, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 3911.
  91. He, G. F., O. Schneider, D. S. Qin, X. Zhou, M. Pfeiffer, and K. Leo, 2004, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 5773.
  92. Helfrich, W., and W. G. Schneider, 1965, Phys. Rev. Lett. 14, 229.
  93. Ho, C. L., M. F. Lin, W. Y. Wong, W. K. Wong, and C. H. Chen, 2008, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 083301.
  94. Ho, C. L., W. Y. Wong, Q. Wang, D. G. Ma, L. X. Wang, and Z. Y. Lin, 2008, Adv. Funct. Mater. 18, 928.
  95. Hofmann, S., T. C. Rosenow, M. C. Gather, B. Luessem, and K. Leo, 2012, Phys. Rev. B 85, 245209.
  96. Hofmann, S., M. Thomschke, P. Freitag, M. Furno, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 253308.
  97. Holmes, R. J., B. W. D’Andrade, S. R. Forrest, X. Ren, J. Li, and M. E. Thompson, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 3818.
  98. Hsu, S. F., C. C. Lee, S. W. Hwang, and C. H. Chen, 2005, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 253508.
  99. Hu, B., and F. E. Karasz, 2003, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 1995.
  100. Huang, F., P. I. Shih, C. F. Shu, Y. Chi, and A. K. Y. Jen, 2009, Adv. Mater. 21, 361.
  101. Huang, J. S., W. J. Hou, J. H. Li, G. Li, and Y. Yang, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 133509.
  102. Huang, J. S., G. Li, E. Wu, Q. F. Xu, and Y. Yang, 2006, Adv. Mater. 18, 114.
  103. Huang, Q., K. Walzer, M. Pfeiffer, V. Lyssenko, G. F. He, and K. Leo, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 113515.
  104. Huang, Y. S., J. H. Jou, W. K. Weng, and J. M. Liu, 2002, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2782.
  105. Hung, L. S., C. W. Tang, M. G. Mason, P. Raychaudhuri, and J. Madathil, 2001, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 544.
  106. Hung, W. Y., L. C. Chi, W. J. Chen, Y. M. Chen, S. H. Chou, and K. T. Wong, 2010, J. Mater. Chem. 20, 10113.
  107. Hunt, R., 1995, Measuring Color (Ellis Horwood, London), 2nd ed.
  108. Jiang, J. X., Y. H. Xu, W. Yang, R. Guan, Z. Q. Liu, H. Y. Zhen, and Y. Cao, 2006, Adv. Mater. 18, 1769.
  109. Jordan, R. H., A. Dodabalapur, M. Strukelj, and T. M. Miller, 1996, Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1192.
  110. Jou, J. H., Y. S. Chiu, C. P. Wang, R. Y. Wang, and C. Hu, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 193501.
  111. Kahn, A., J.-J. Pireaux, W. R. Salaneck, and K. Seki, 2001, Eds., Conjugated Polymer and Molecular Interfaces (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York).
  112. Kalinowski, J., M. Cocchi, V. Fattori, L. Murphy, and J. A. G. Williams, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 724.
  113. Kalinowski, J., M. Cocchi, D. Virgili, V. Tattori, and J. A. G. Williams, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 4000.
  114. Kalinowski, J., W. Stampor, J. Mezyk, M. Cocchi, D. Virgili, V. Fattori, and P. Di Marco, 2002, Phys. Rev. B 66, 235321.
  115. Kang, J. W., S. H. Lee, H. D. Park, W. I. Jeong, K. M. Yoo, Y. S. Park, and J. J. Kim, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 223508.
  116. Kanno, H., N. C. Giebink, Y. R. Sun, and S. R. Forrest, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 023503.
  117. Kanno, H., R. J. Holmes, Y. Sun, S. Kena-Cohen, and S. R. Forrest, 2006, Adv. Mater. 18, 339.
  118. Kanno, H., Y. Sun, and S. R. Forrest, 2005, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 263502.
  119. Kanno, H., Y. R. Sun, and S. R. Forrest, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 143516.
  120. Kawamura, Y., J. Brooks, J. J. Brown, H. Sasabe, and C. Adachi, 2006, Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 017404.
  121. Kawamura, Y., K. Goushi, J. Brooks, J. J. Brown, H. Sasabe, and C. Adachi, 2005, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 071104.
  122. Kawamura, Y., S. Yanagida, and S. R. Forrest, 2002, J. Appl. Phys. 92, 87.
  123. Kepler, R. G., P. Avakian, J. C. Caris, and E. Abramson, 1963, Phys. Rev. Lett. 10, 400.
  124. Kido, J., K. Hongawa, K. Okuyama, and K. Nagai, 1994, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 815.
  125. Kido, J., M. Kimura, and K. Nagai, 1995, Science 267, 1332.
  126. Kido, J., H. Shionoya, and K. Nagai, 1995, Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2281.
  127. Kim, C. H., and J. Shinar, 2002, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 2201.
  128. Kim, J. H., P. Herguth, M. S. Kang, A. K. Y. Jen, Y. H. Tseng, and C. F. Shu, 2004, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 1116.
  129. Kim, S. H., J. Jang, and J. Y. Lee, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 123509.
  130. Kim, T. H., H. K. Lee, O. O. Park, B. D. Chin, S. H. Lee, and J. K. Kim, 2006, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16, 611.
  131. Klessinger, M., and J. Michl, 1989, Lichtabsorption und Photochemie organischer Moleküle (VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim).
  132. Kobayashi, T., N. Ide, N. Matsusue, and H. Naito, 2005, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 44, 1966.
  133. Koch, N., 2012, Phys. Status Solidi RRL 6, 277.
  134. Koch, N., S. Duhm, J. P. Rabe, A. Vollmer, and R. L. Johnson, 2005, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 237601.
  135. Koh, T. W., J. M. Choi, S. Lee, and S. Yoo, 2010, Adv. Mater. 22, 1849.
  136. Köhnen, A., M. Irion, M. C. Gather, N. Rehmann, P. Zacharias, and K. Meerholz, 2010, J. Mater. Chem. 20, 3301.
  137. Kondakov, D. Y., 2007, J. Appl. Phys. 102, 114504.
  138. Kondakova, M. E., J. C. Deaton, T. D. Pawlik, D. J. Giesen, D. Y. Kondakov, R. H. Young, T. L. Royster, D. L. Comfort, and J. D. Shore, 2010, J. Appl. Phys. 107, 014515.
  139. Koo, W. H., S. M. Jeong, F. Araoka, K. Ishikawa, S. Nishimura, T. Toyooka, and H. Takezoe, 2010, Nat. Photonics 4, 222.
  140. Koshiyama, T., A. Omura, and M. Kato, 2004, Chem. Lett. 33, 1386.
  141. Krummacher, B. C., V. E. Choong, M. K. Mathai, S. A. Choulis, F. So, F. Jermann, T. Fiedler, and M. Zachau, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 113506.
  142. Krummacher, B. C., S. Nowy, J. Frischeisen, M. Klein, and W. Brütting, 2009, Org. Electron. 10, 478.
  143. Lai, S. L., S. L. Tao, M. Y. Chan, T. W. Ng, M. F. Lo, C. S. Lee, X. H. Zhang, and S. T. Lee, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 1511.
  144. Lee, S. K., D. H. Hwang, B. J. Jung, N. S. Cho, J. Lee, J. D. Lee, and H. K. Shim, 2005, Adv. Funct. Mater. 15, 1647.
  145. Leem, D. S., J. W. Kim, S. O. Jung, S. O. Kim, S. H. Kim, K. Y. Kim, Y. H. Kim, S. K. Kwon, and J. J. Kim, 2010, J. Phys. D 43, 405102.
  146. Lei, G. T., L. D. Wang, and Y. Qiu, 2004, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5403.
  147. Lei, G. T., L. D. Wang, and Y. Qiu, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 103508.
  148. Lin, C. L., T. Y. Cho, C. H. Chang, and C. C. Wu, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 081114.
  149. Liu, J., X. Guo, L. J. Bu, Z. Y. Xie, Y. X. Cheng, Y. H. Geng, L. X. Wang, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2007, Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 1917.
  150. Liu, J., Z. Y. Xie, Y. X. Cheng, Y. H. Geng, L. X. Wang, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 531.
  151. Liu, J., Q. G. Zhou, Y. X. Cheng, Y. H. Geng, L. X. Wang, D. G. Ma, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2005, Adv. Mater. 17, 2974.
  152. Liu, J., Q. G. Zhou, Y. X. Cheng, Y. H. Geng, L. X. Wang, D. G. Ma, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2006, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16, 957.
  153. Lu, M. H., and J. C. Sturm, 2002, J. Appl. Phys. 91, 595.
  154. Luo, J., X. Z. Li, Q. Hou, J. B. Peng, W. Yang, and Y. Cao, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 1113.
  155. Ma, B. W., P. I. Djurovich, S. Garon, B. Alleyne, and M. E. Thompson, 2006, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16, 2438.
  156. Ma, Y. G., H. Y. Zhang, J. C. Shen, and C. M. Che, 1998, Synth. Met. 94, 245.
  157. Madigan, C. F., M. H. Lu, and J. C. Sturm, 2000, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 1650.
  158. Mattoussi, H., H. Murata, C. D. Merritt, Y. Iizumi, J. Kido, and Z. H. Kafafi, 1999, J. Appl. Phys. 86, 2642.
  159. Mazzeo, M., D. Pisignano, F. Della Sala, J. Thompson, R. I. R. Blyth, G. Gigli, R. Cingolani, G. Sotgiu, and G. Barbarella, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 334.
  160. Meerheim, R., M. Furno, S. Hofmann, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 253305.
  161. Meerheim, R., R. Nitsche, and K. Leo, 2008, Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 043310.
  162. Meerheim, R., S. Scholz, S. Olthof, G. Schwartz, S. Reineke, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2008, J. Appl. Phys. 104, 014510.
  163. Meerheim, R., K. Walzer, M. Pfeiffer, and K. Leo, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 061111.
  164. Mladenovski, S., K. Neyts, D. Pavicic, A. Werner, and C. Rothe, 2009, Opt. Express 17, 7562.
  165. Möller, S., and S. R. Forrest, 2002, J. Appl. Phys. 91, 3324.
  166. Murphy, C. B., Y. Zhang, T. Troxler, V. Ferry, J. J. Martin, and W. E. Jones, 2004, J. Phys. Chem. B 108, 1537.
  167. Nakamura, T., N. Tsutsumi, N. Juni, and H. Fujii, 2005, J. Appl. Phys. 97, 054505.
  168. Namdas, E. B., A. Ruseckas, I. D. W. Samuel, S. C. Lo, and P. L. Burn, 2005, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 091104.
  169. Narukawa, Y., J. Narita, T. Sakamoto, K. Deguchi, T. Yamada, and T. Mukai, 2006, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Pt. 2 Letters 45, L1084.
  170. Narukawa, Y., M. Sano, T. Sakamoto, T. Yamada, and T. Mukai, 2008, Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 1081.
  171. Neyts, K., 1998, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 15, 962.
  172. Niu, X. D., L. Ma, B. Yao, J. Q. Ding, G. L. Tu, Z. Y. Xie, and L. X. Wang, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 213508.
  173. Niu, Y. H., et al., 2004, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 1619.
  174. Niu, Y. H., M. S. Liu, J. W. Ka, J. Bardeker, M. T. Zin, R. Schofield, Y. Chi, and A. K. Y. Jen, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 300.
  175. Noh, Y. Y., C. L. Lee, J. J. Kim, and K. Yase, 2003, J. Chem. Phys. 118, 2853.
  176. Nowy, S., B. C. Krummacher, J. Frischeisen, N. A. Reinke, and W. Brütting, 2008, J. Appl. Phys. 104, 123109.
  177. Ohno, Y., 2004, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 5530, 88.
  178. Ohta, N., and A. R. Robertson, 2005, Colorimetry: Fundamentals and Applications (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., New York).
  179. Okumoto, K., H. Kanno, Y. Hamaa, H. Takahashi, and K. Shibata, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 063504.
  180. Perumal, A., M. Froebel, S. Gorantla, T. Gemming, B. Luessem, J. Eckert, and K. Leo, 2012, Adv. Funct. Mater. 22, 210.
  181. Pope, M., and C. E. Swenberg, 1999, Eds., Electronic Processes in Organic Crystals (Oxford University Press, New York).
  182. Pschenitzka, F., and J. C. Sturm, 1999, Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 1913.
  183. Rack, P. D., and P. H. Holloway, 1998, Materials Science & Engineering R-reports 21, 171.
  184. Rehmann, N., C. Ulbricht, A. Koehnen, P. Zacharias, M. C. Gather, D. Hertel, E. Holder, K. Meerholz, and U. S. Schubert, 2008, Adv. Mater. 20, 129.
  185. Reineke, S., and M. A. Baldo, 2012, Phys. Status Solidi A 209, 2341.
  186. Reineke, S., F. Lindner, G. Schwartz, N. Seidler, K. Walzer, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2009, Nature (London) 459, 234.
  187. Reineke, S., T. C. Rosenow, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, Adv. Mater. 22, 3189.
  188. Reineke, S., G. Schwartz, K. Walzer, M. Falke, and K. Leo, 2009, Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 163305.
  189. Reineke, S., G. Schwartz, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 123508.
  190. Reineke, S., G. Schwartz, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2009, Phys. Status Solidi RRL 3, 67.
  191. Reineke, S., K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2007, Phys. Rev. B 75, 125328.
  192. Reinhold, J., 2004, Quantentheorie der Moleküle: Eine Einführung (B. G. Teubner Verlag/GWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden).
  193. Riel, H., S. Karg, T. Beierlein, B. Ruhstaller, and W. Riess, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 466.
  194. Rosenow, T. C., M. Furno, S. Reineke, S. Olthof, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, J. Appl. Phys. 108, 113113.
  195. Sasabe, H., and J. Kido, 2011, Chem. Mater. 23, 621.
  196. Sasabe, H., J. Takamatsu, T. Motoyama, S. Watanabe, G. Wagenblast, N. Langer, O. Molt, E. Fuchs, C. Lennartz, and J. Kido, 2010, Adv. Mater. 22, 5003.
  197. Sasabe, H., D. Tanaka, D. Yokoyama, T. Chiba, Y.-J. Pu, K.-i. Nakayama, M. Yokoyama, and J. Kido, 2011, Adv. Funct. Mater. 21, 336.
  198. Schmidt, T. D., D. S. Setz, M. Flaemmich, J. Frischeisen, D. Michaelis, B. C. Krummacher, N. Danz, and W. Bruetting, 2011, Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 163302.
  199. Schwab, T., M. Thomschke, S. Hofmann, M. Furno, K. Leo, and B. Luessem, 2011, J. Appl. Phys. 110, 083118.
  200. Schwartz, G., K. Fehse, M. Pfeiffer, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 083509.
  201. Schwartz, G., T. H. Ke, C. C. Wu, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2008, Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 073304.
  202. Schwartz, G., M. Pfeiffer, S. Reineke, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 3672.
  203. Schwartz, G., S. Reineke, T. C. Rosenow, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2009, Adv. Funct. Mater. 19, 1319.
  204. Schwartz, G., S. Reineke, K. Walzer, and K. Leo, 2008, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 053311.
  205. Segal, M., M. A. Baldo, R. J. Holmes, S. R. Forrest, and Z. G. Soos, 2003, Phys. Rev. B 68, 075211.
  206. Segal, M., M. Singh, K. Rivoire, S. Difley, T. Van Voorhis, and M. A. Baldo, 2007, Nat. Mater. 6, 374.
  207. Seidler, N., S. Reineke, K. Walzer, B. Lüssem, A. Tomkeviciene, J. V. Grazulevicius, and K. Leo, 2010, Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 093304.
  208. Seo, J. H., S. J. Lee, B. M. Seo, S. J. Moon, K. H. Lee, J. K. Park, S. S. Yoon, and Y. K. Kim, 2010, Org. Electron. 11, 1759.
  209. Seo, J. H., J. H. Seo, J. H. Park, Y. K. Kim, J. H. Kim, G. W. Hyung, K. H. Lee, and S. S. Yoon, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 203507.
  210. Shen, Z. L., P. E. Burrows, V. Bulovic, S. R. Forrest, and M. E. Thompson, 1997, Science 276, 2009.
  211. Shimizu, M., and T. Hiyama, 2010, Chemistry-an Asian Journal 5, 1516.
  212. Shirasaki, Y., G. Supran, M. Bawendi, and V. Bulovic, 2013, Nat. Photonics 7, 13.
  213. So, F., and D. Kondakov, 2010, Adv. Mater. 22, 3762.
  214. Sokolik, I., R. Priestley, A. D. Walser, R. Dorsinville, and C. W. Tang, 1996, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 4168.
  215. Staroske, W., M. Pfeiffer, K. Leo, and M. Hoffmann, 2007, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 197402.
  216. Steele, R. V., 2007, Nat. Photonics 1, 25.
  217. Stewart, J. S., T. Lippert, M. Nagel, F. Nuesch, and A. Wokaun, 2012, Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 203303.
  218. Strukelj, M., R. H. Jordan, and A. Dodabalapur, 1996, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118, 1213.
  219. Su, S. J., E. Gonmori, H. Sasabe, and J. Kido, 2008, Adv. Mater. 20, 4189.
  220. Su, S. J., H. Sasabe, Y. J. Pu, K. Nakayama, and J. Kido, 2010, Adv. Mater. 22, 3311.
  221. Sun, Y., and S. R. Forrest, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 263503.
  222. Sun, Y., and S. R. Forrest, 2008a, Nat. Photonics 2, 483.
  223. Sun, Y. R., and S. R. Forrest, 2008b, Org. Electron. 9, 994.
  224. Sun, Y. R., N. C. Giebink, H. Kanno, B. W. Ma, M. E. Thompson, and S. R. Forrest, 2006, Nature (London) 440, 908.
  225. Suna, A., 1970, Phys. Rev. B 1, 1716.
  226. Swanson, S. A., G. M. Wallraff, J. P. Chen, W. J. Zhang, L. D. Bozano, K. R. Carter, J. R. Salem, R. Villa, and J. C. Scott, 2003, Chem. Mater. 15, 2305.
  227. Tanaka, D., Y. Agata, T. Takeda, S. Watanabe, and J. Kido, 2007, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Pt. 2 Letters 46, L117.
  228. Tanaka, D., H. Sasabe, Y. J. Li, S. J. Su, T. Takeda, and J. Kido, 2007, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 46, L10.
  229. Tanaka, H., T. Ise, D. Shiomi, K. Sato, and T. Takui, 2006, J. Low Temp. Phys. 142, 601.
  230. Taneda, M., T. Yasuda, and C. Adachi, 2011, Appl. Phys. Express 4, 071602.
  231. Tang, C. W., and S. A. VanSlyke, 1987, Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 913.
  232. Tasch, S., E. J. W. List, O. Ekström, W. Graupner, G. Leising, P. Schlichting, U. Rohr, Y. Geerts, U. Scherf, and K. Müllen, 1997, Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2883.
  233. Thompson, J., R. I. R. Blyth, M. Mazzeo, M. Anni, G. Gigli, and R. Cingolani, 2001, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 560.
  234. Thompson, M. E., 2007, MRS Bull. 32, 694.
  235. Thomschke, M., R. Nitsche, M. Furno, and K. Leo, 2009, Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 083303.
  236. Thomschke, M., S. Reineke, B. Luessem, and K. Leo, 2012, Nano Lett. 12, 424.
  237. Tokito, S., T. Iijima, Y. Suzuri, H. Kita, T. Tsuzuki, and F. Sato, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 569.
  238. Tokito, S., T. Tsuzuki, F. Sato, and T. Iijima, 2005, Curr. Appl. Phys. 5, 331.
  239. Tong, Q. X., S. L. Lai, M. Y. Chan, J. X. Tang, H. L. Kwong, C. S. Lee, and S. T. Lee, 2007, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 023503.
  240. Tsai, M. H., H. W. Lin, H. C. Su, T. H. Ke, C. C. Wu, F. C. Fang, Y. L. Liao, K. T. Wong, and C. I. Wu, 2006, Adv. Mater. 18, 1216.
  241. Tsai, M. L., C. Y. Liu, M. A. Hsu, and T. J. Chow, 2003, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 550.
  242. Tsai, Y. C., and J. H. Jou, 2006, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 243521.
  243. Tu, G. L., C. Y. Mei, Q. G. Zhou, Y. X. Cheng, Y. H. Geng, L. X. Wang, D. G. Ma, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2006, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16, 101.
  244. Tu, G. L., Q. G. Zhou, Y. X. Cheng, L. X. Wang, D. G. Ma, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2004, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 2172.
  245. Uoyama, H., K. Goushi, K. Shizu, H. Nomura, and C. Adachi, 2012, Nature (London) 492, 234.
  246. Walzer, K., B. Maennig, M. Pfeiffer, and K. Leo, 2007, Chem. Rev. 107, 1233.
  247. Wang, Q., J. Q. Ding, D. G. Ma, Y. X. Cheng, L. X. Wang, X. B. Jing, and F. S. Wang, 2009a, Adv. Funct. Mater. 19, 84.
  248. Wang, Q., J. Q. Ding, D. G. Ma, Y. X. Cheng, L. X. Wang, and F. S. Wang, 2009b, Adv. Mater. 21, 2397.
  249. Wang, Y. Z., R. G. Sun, F. Meghdadi, G. Leising, and A. J. Epstein, 1999, Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 3613.
  250. Weichsel, C., S. Reineke, M. Furno, B. Luessem, and K. Leo, 2012, J. Appl. Phys. 111, 033102.
  251. Wigner, E., and E. E. Witmer, 1928, Z. Phys. A 51, 859.
  252. Williams, E. L., K. Haavisto, J. Li, and G. E. Jabbour, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 197.
  253. Wood, V., M. J. Panzer, D. Bozyigit, Y. Shirasaki, I. Rousseau, S. Geyer, M. G. Bawendi, and V. Bulovic, 2011, Nano Lett. 11, 2927.
  254. Wu, H. B., J. H. Zou, F. Liu, L. Wang, A. Mikhailovsky, G. C. Bazan, W. Yang, and Y. Cao, 2008, Adv. Mater. 20, 696.
  255. Wu, W. C., W. Y. Lee, and W. C. Chen, 2006, Macromol. Chem. Phys. 207, 1131.
  256. Wu, Y. S., S. W. Hwang, H. H. Chen, M. T. Lee, W. J. Shen, and C. H. Chen, 2005, Thin Solid Films 488, 265.
  257. Wünsche, J., S. Reineke, B. Lüssem, and K. Leo, 2010, Phys. Rev. B 81, 245201.
  258. Xie, W. F., S. Y. Liu, and Y. Zhao, 2003, J. Phys. D 36, 1246.
  259. Xie, Z. Y., J. S. Huang, C. N. Li, S. Y. Liu, Y. Wang, Y. Q. Li, and J. C. Shen, 1999, Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 641.
  260. Xu, Q. F., H. M. Duong, F. Wudl, and Y. Yang, 2004, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 3357.
  261. Xu, Y. H., J. B. Peng, J. X. Jiang, W. Xu, W. Yang, and Y. Cao, 2005, Appl. Phys. Lett. 87, 193502.
  262. Xue, Q., G. H. Xie, P. Chen, J. H. Lu, D. D. Zhang, Y. N. Tang, Y. Zhao, J. Y. Hou, and S. Y. Liu, 2010, Synth. Met. 160, 829.
  263. Yamamori, A., C. Adachi, T. Koyama, and Y. Taniguchi, 1998, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 2147.
  264. Yan, B. P., C. C. C. Cheung, S. C. F. Kui, H. F. Xiang, V. A. L. Roy, S. J. Xu, and C. M. Che, 2007, Adv. Mater. 19, 3599.
  265. Yang, Y., T. Peng, K. Q. Ye, Y. Wu, Y. Liu, and Y. Wang, 2011, Org. Electron. 12, 29.
  266. Yeh, S. J., M. F. Wu, C. T. Chen, Y. H. Song, Y. Chi, M. H. Ho, S. F. Hsu, and C. H. Chen, 2005, Adv. Mater. 17, 285.
  267. Yersin, H., 2004, Transition Metal And Rare Earth Compounds III (Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg), Vol. 241.
  268. Yersin, H., D. Donges, W. Humbs, J. Strasser, R. Sitters, and M. Glasbeek, 2002, Inorg. Chem. 41, 4915.
  269. Yokoyama, D., A. Sakaguchi, M. Suzuki, and C. Adachi, 2009, Org. Electron. 10, 127.
  270. Zhang, B. H., C. J. Qin, J. Q. Ding, L. Chen, Z. Y. Xie, Y. X. Cheng, and L. X. Wang, 2010, Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 2951.
  271. Zhang, L. J., Y. L. Hua, X. M. Wu, Y. Wang, and S. G. Yin, 2008, Chin. Phys. B 17, 3097.
  272. Zhang, Z. L., X. Y. Jiang, W. Q. Zhu, B. X. Zhang, and S. H. Xu, 2001, J. Phys. D 34, 3083.
  273. Zheludev, N., 2007, Nat. Photonics 1, 189.
  274. Zheng, G. Y., and D. P. Rillema, 1998, Inorg. Chem. 37, 1392.
  275. Zhou, G. J., Q. Wang, C. L. Ho, W. Y. Wong, D. G. Ma, and L. X. Wang, 2009, Chem. Commun. 3574.
  276. Zhou, T. X., T. Ngo, J. J. Brown, M. Shtein, and S. R. Forrest, 2005, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 021107.
  277. Zhou, X., J. Blochwitz, M. Pfeiffer, A. Nollau, T. Fritz, and K. Leo, 2001, Adv. Funct. Mater. 11, 310.
  278. Zhou, X., et al., 2002, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 4070.
  279. Zhou, Y. C., L. L. Ma, J. Zhou, X. M. Ding, and X. Y. Hou, 2007, Phys. Rev. B 75, 132202.
  280. Zuniga, C. A., S. Barlow, and S. R. Marder, 2011, Chem. Mater. 23, 658.

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 85, 1245– Published 30 July, 2013
  • Received 26 July 2012

© 2013 American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation