- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Reviews of Modern Physics

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolutionof astrophysical objects

Fred C. Adams and Gregory Laughlin

Fred C. Adams and Gregory Laughlin

  • Physics Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109

PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 69, 337 – Published 1 April, 1997

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337

Abstract

This paper outlines astrophysical issues related to the long-term fate of the universe. The authors consider the evolution of planets, stars, stellar populations, galaxies, and the universe itself over time scales that greatly exceed the current age of the universe. Their discussion starts with new stellar evolution calculations which follow the future evolution of the low-mass (M-type) stars that dominate the stellar mass function. They derive scaling relations that describe how the range of stellar masses and lifetimes depends on forthcoming increases in metallicity. They then proceed to determine the ultimate mass distribution of stellar remnants, i.e., the neutron stars, white dwarfs, and brown dwarfs remaining at the end of stellar evolution; this aggregate of remnants defines the 'final stellar mass function.' At times exceeding ∼1–10 trillion years, the supply of interstellar gas will be exhausted, yet star formation will continue at a highly attenuated level via collisions between brown dwarfs. This process tails off as the galaxy gradually depletes its stars by ejecting the majority and driving a minority toward eventual accretion onto massive black holes. As the galaxy disperses, stellar remnants provide a mechanism for converting the halo dark matter into radiative energy. Posited weakly interacting massive particles are accreted by white dwarfs, where they subsequently annihilate with each other. Thermalization of the decay products keeps the old white dwarfs much warmer than they would otherwise be. After accounting for the destruction of the galaxy, the authors consider the fate of the expelled degenerate objects (planets, white dwarfs, and neutron stars) within the explicit assumption that proton decay is a viable process. The evolution and eventual sublimation of these objects is dictated by the decay of their constituent nucleons, and this evolutionary scenario is developed in some detail. After white dwarfs and neutron stars have disappeared, galactic black holes slowly lose their mass as they emit Hawking radiation. This review finishes with an evaluation of cosmological issues that arise in connection with the long-term evolution of the universe. Special attention is devoted to the relation between future density fluctuations and the prospects for continued large-scale expansion. The authors compute the evolution of the background radiation fields of the universe. After several trillion years, the current cosmic microwave background will have redshifted into insignificance; the dominant contribution to the radiation background will arise from other sources, including stars, dark-matter annihilation, proton decay, and black holes. Finally, the authors consider the dramatic possible effects of a nonzero vacuum energy density.

View figure in article

References (168)

  1. Abramowitz, M., and I. A. Stegun, 1972, Handbook of Mathematical Functions (Dover, New York).
  2. Adams, F. C., 1993, Phys. Rev. D 48, 2800.
  3. Adams, F. C. and M. Fatuzzo, 1996, Astrophys. J. 464, 256.
  4. Adams, F. C. and K. Freese, 1991, Phys. Rev. D 43, 353.
  5. Adams, F. C. and K. Freese, 1995, Phys. Rev. D 51, 6722.
  6. Adams, F. C., K. Freese and A. H. Guth, 1991, Phys. Rev. D 43, 965.
  7. Albrecht, A. and P. J. Steinhardt, 1982, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1220.
  8. Alcock, C. et al. 1993, Nature 365, 621.
  9. Aubourg, E. et al. 1993, Nature 365, 623.
  10. Bahcall, J. N. 1989, Neutrino Astrophysics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).
  11. Bardeen, J. M., P. J. Steinhardt and M. S. Turner, 1983, Phys. Rev. D 28, 679.
  12. Barrow, J. D. and F. J. Tipler, 1978, Nature 276, 453.
  13. Barrow, J. D., and F. J. Tipler, 1986, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (Oxford University Press, New York/London).
  14. Bekenstein, J. D., 1981, Phys. Rev. D 23, 287.
  15. Binney, J., and S. Tremaine, 1987, Galactic Dynamics (Prince- ton University, Princeton, NJ).
  16. Blau, S. K., E. I. Guendelman and A. H. Guth, 1987, Phys. Rev. D 35, 1747.
  17. Bond, J. R., B. J. Carr and C. J. Hogan, 1991, Atrophys. J. 367, 420.
  18. Brune, D., and J. J. Schmidt, 1974, Eds., Handbook on Nuclear Activation Cross Sections (IAEA, Vienna).
  19. Burrows, A., W. B. Hubbard, D. Saumon and J. I. Lunine, 1993, Astrophys. J. 406, 158.
  20. Burrows, A. and J. Liebert, 1993, Rev. Mod. Phys. 65, 301.
  21. Carroll, S. M., W. H. Press and E. L. Turner, 1992, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 30, 499.
  22. Castano, D. J. and S. P. Martin, 1994, Phys. Lett. B 340, 67.
  23. Chandrasekhar, S. 1939, Stellar Structure (Dover, New York).
  24. Chernoff, D. F. and M. D. Weinberg, 1990, Astrophys. J. 351, 121.
  25. Clausius, R., 1865, Ann. Phys. (Leipzig) 125, 353.
  26. Clausius, R. 1868, Philos. Mag. 35, 405.
  27. Clayton, D. D., 1983, Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis (University of Chicago, Chicago).
  28. Coleman, S., 1977, Phys. Rev. D 15, 2929.
  29. Coleman, S., 1985, Aspects of Symmetry (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).
  30. Coleman, S. and F. De Luccia, 1980, Phys. Rev. D 21, 3305.
  31. Copeland, H., J. O. Jensen and H. E. Jorgensen, 1970, Astron. Astrophys. 5, 12.
  32. Crone, M. M. and M. Sher, 1990, Am. J. Phys. 59, 25.
  33. D"Antona, F. and I. Mazzitelli, 1985, Astrophys. J. 296, 502.
  34. Davies, P. C. W., 1994, The Last Three Minutes (BasicBooks, New York).
  35. Dicus, D. A., J. R. Letaw, D. C. Teplitz and V. L. Teplitz, 1982, Astrophys. J. 252, 1.
  36. Diehl, E., G. L. Kane, C. Kolda and J. D. Wells, 1995, Phys. Rev. D 52, 4223.
  37. Dorman, B., L. A. Nelson and W. Y. Chau, 1989, Astrophys. J. 342, 1003.
  38. Draine, B. T. and H. M. Lee, 1984, Astrophys. J. 285, 89.
  39. Dyson, F. J., 1979, Rev. Mod. Phys. 51, 447.
  40. Dyson, F. J., 1988, Infinite in All Directions (Harper and Row, New York).
  41. Eddington, A. S., 1931, Nature 127, 447.
  42. Ellis, G. F. R.and T. Rothman, 1993, Am. J. Phys. 61, 883.
  43. Ellis, G. F. R. and D. H. Coule, 1994, Gen. Relativ. Gravity 26, 731.
  44. Elmegreen, B. G. and R. D. Mathieu, 1983, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 203, 305.
  45. Faulkner, J. and R. L. Gilliland, 1985, Astrophys. J. 299, 994.
  46. Feinberg, G., 1981, Phys. Rev. D 23, 3075.
  47. Feinberg, G., M. Goldhaber and G. Steigman, 1978, Phys. Rev. D 18, 1602.
  48. Frautschi, S., 1982, Science 217, 593.
  49. Freese, K., 1986, Phys. Lett. B 167, 295.
  50. Gaier, T., J. Schuster, J. Gundersen, T. Koch, M. Seiffert, P. Meinhold, and P. Lubin, 1992, Astrophys. J. Lett. 398, L1.
  51. Goity, J. L. and M. Sher, 1995, Phys. Lett. B 346, 69.
  52. Golimowski, D. A., T. Nakajima, S. R. Kulkarni, and B. R. Oppenheimer, 1995, Astrophys. J. Lett. 444, L101.
  53. Gott, J. R., III, 1993, Nature 363, 315.
  54. Gould, A., 1987, Astrophys. J. 321, 571.
  55. Gould, A., 1991, Astrophys. J. 388, 338.
  56. Grischuk, L. P. and Ya. B. Zel"dovich, 1978, Sov. Astron. 22, 125.
  57. Grossman, A. S. and H. C. Graboske, 1971, Astrophys. J. 164, 475.
  58. Guth, A., 1981, Phys. Rev. D 23, 347.
  59. Guth, A. H. and S.-Y. Pi, 1982, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 1110.
  60. Hamada, T. and E. E. Salpeter, 1961, Astrophys. J. 134, 683.
  61. Hawking, S. W., 1975, Commun. Math. Phys. 43, 199.
  62. Hawking, S. W., 1982, Phys. Lett. B115, 295.
  63. Hawking, S. W., 1985, Phys. Lett. B150, 339.
  64. Hawking, S. W., 1987, Phys. Lett. B195, 337.
  65. Hawking, S. W., D. N. Page and C. N. Pope, 1979, Phys. Lett. B86, 175.
  66. Helmholz, H. von, 1854, On the Interaction of Natural Forces.
  67. Henry, T. J., J. D. Kirkpatrick and D. A. Simons, 1994, Astron. J. 108, 1437.
  68. Hubbell, J. H., H. A. Glimm and I. Overbo, 1980, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 9, 1023.
  69. Hut, et al. 1992, Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 104, 981.
  70. Islam, J. N., 1977, Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 18, 3.
  71. Islam, J. N., 1979, Sky Telesc. 57, 13.
  72. Jungman, G., M. Kamionkowski, and K. Griest, 1996, Phys. Rep., in press.
  73. Jura, M., 1986, Astrophys. J. 301, 624.
  74. Kane, G. L., 1993, Modern Elementary Particle Physics (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA).
  75. Kane, G. L., and J. D. Wells, 1996, Phys. Rev. Lett., in press.
  76. Kennicutt, R. C., P. Tamblyn and C. W. Congdon, 1995, Astrophys. J. 435, 22.
  77. Kippenhahn, R., and A. Weigert, 1990, Stellar Structure and Evolution (Springer, Berlin).
  78. Kolb, E. W., and M. S. Turner, 1990, The Early Universe (Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA).
  79. Krauss, L. M., M. Srednicki and F. Wilczek, 1986, Phys. Rev. D 33, 2206.
  80. Krauss, L. M. and M. White, 1992, Phys. Rev. Lett. 69, 869.
  81. Kumar, S. S., 1963, Astrophys. J. 137, 1121.
  82. La, D. and P. J. Steinhardt, 1989, Phys. Rev. Lett. 62, 376.
  83. Langacker, P., 1981, Phys. Rep. 72, 186.
  84. Larson, R. B., 1973, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 161, 133.
  85. Larson, R. B. and B. M. Tinsley, 1978, Astrophys. J. 219, 46.
  86. Laughlin, G. and P. Bodenheimer, 1993, Astrophys. J. 403, 303.
  87. Laughlin, G., P. Bodenheimer, and F. C. Adams, 1996, Astrophys. J., in press.
  88. Lee, H. M. and J. P. Ostriker, 1986, Astrophys. J. 310, 176.
  89. Lemaître, G., 1933, Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles A53, 51.
  90. Lightman, A. P. and S. L. Shapiro, 1978, Rev. Mod. Phys. 50, 437.
  91. Linde, A. D., 1982, Phys. Lett. B108, 389.
  92. Linde, A. D., 1983, Nucl. Phys. B216, 421.
  93. Linde, A. D., 1988, Phys. Lett. B211, 29.
  94. Linde, A. D., 1989, Phys. Lett. B227, 352.
  95. Linde, A. D., 1990, Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology (Harwood Academic, New York).
  96. Loh, E., and E. Spillar, 1986, Astrophys. J. Lett. 307, L1.
  97. Lyth, D. H., 1984, Phys. Lett. B147, 403.
  98. Manchester, R. N., and J. H. Taylor, 1977, Pulsars (W. H. Freeman, San Francisco).
  99. Marcy, G. W., R. P. Butler, and E. Williams, 1996, preprint.
  100. Mayor, M. and D. Queloz, 1995, Nature 378, 355.
  101. Meyer, S. S., E. S. Cheng, and L. A. Page, 1991, Astrophys. J. Lett. 410, L57.
  102. Mihalas, D., and J. Binney, 1981, Galactic Astronomy: Structure and Kinematics (W. H. Freeman, New York).
  103. Miller, G. E. and J. M. Scalo, 1979, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 41, 513.
  104. Misner, C. W., K. S. Thorne, and J. A. Wheeler, 1973, Gravitation (W. H. Freeman, San Francisco).
  105. Mohapatra, R. N. and R. E. Marshak, 1980, Phys. Rev. Lett. 44, 1316.
  106. Ohanian, H. C., and R. Ruffini, 1994, Gravitation and Spacetime (Norton, New York).
  107. Oppenheimer, B. R., S. R. Kulkarni, K. Matthews and T. Nakajima, 1995, Science 270, 1478.
  108. Page, D. N., 1980, Phys. Lett. B95, 244.
  109. Page, D. N. and M. R. McKee, 1981a, Phys. Rev. D 24, 1458.
  110. Page, D. N. and M. R. McKee, 1981b, Nature 291, 44.
  111. Particle Data Group, 1994, Phys. Rev. D 50, 1173.
  112. Peccei, R. D. and H. R. Quinn, 1977a, Phys. Rev. Lett. 38, 1440.
  113. Peccei, R. D. and H. R. Quinn, 1977b, Phys. Rev. D 16, 1791.
  114. Peebles, P. J. E., 1993, Principles of Physical Cosmology (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ).
  115. Peebles, P. J. E., 1994, Astrophys. J. 429, 43.
  116. Perkins, D., 1984, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 34, 1.
  117. Phillips, A. C., 1994, The Physics of Stars (Wiley, Chichester).
  118. Poundstone, W., 1985, The Recursive Universe (Morrow, New York).
  119. Press, W. H. and D. N. Spergel, 1985, Astrophys. J. 296, 679.
  120. Press, W. H. and S. A. Teukolsky, 1977, Astrophys. J. 213, 183.
  121. Primack, J. R. and M. Sher, 1980, Nature 288, 680.
  122. Rajaraman, R., 1987, Solitons and Instantons (North-Holland, Amsterdam).
  123. Rana, N. C., 1991, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 29, 129.
  124. Rees, M. J., 1969, Observatory 89, 193.
  125. Rees, M. J., 1981, Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 22, 109.
  126. Rees, M. J., 1984, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 22, 471.
  127. Reimers, D., 1975, in Problems in Stellar Astrophysics, edited by B. Bascheck, W. H. Kegel, and G. Traving (Springer, New York), p. 299.
  128. Riess, A. G., W. H. Press, and R. P. Kirshner, 1995, Astrophys. J. Lett. 438, L17.
  129. Roberts, M. S. 1963, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1, 149.
  130. Sackmann, I.-J., A. I. Boothroyd and K. E. Kraemer, 1993, Astrophys. J. 418, 457.
  131. Sakharov, A. D., 1967, JETP Lett. 5, 24.
  132. Salpeter, E. E., 1955, Astrophys. J. 121, 161.
  133. Salpeter, E. E., 1982, in Essays in Nuclear Astrophysics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England).
  134. Salpeter, E. E. and H. M. Van Horn, 1969, Astrophys. J. 155, 183.
  135. Sato, K., H. Kodama, M. Sasaki and K. Maeda, 1982, Phys. Lett. B 108, 103.
  136. Scalo, J. M., 1986, Fundam. Cosm. Phys. 11, 1.
  137. Schuster, J., T. Gaier, J. Gundersen, P. Meinhold, T. Koch, M. Seiffert, C. A. Wuensche, and P. Lubin, 1993, Astrophys. J. Lett. 412, L47.
  138. Shapiro, S. L., and S. A. Teukolsky, 1983, Black Holes, White Dwarfs, and Neutron Stars: The Physics of Compact Objects (Wiley, New York).
  139. Sher, M., 1989, Phys. Rep. 179, 273.
  140. Shu, F. H., 1982, The Physical Universe (University Science Books, Mill Valley).
  141. Shu, F. H., F. C. Adams and S. Lizano, 1987, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 25, 23.
  142. Smoot, G. F., et al., 1992, Astrophys. J. Lett. 396, L1.
  143. Stahler, S. W., 1988, Astrophys. J. 332, 804.
  144. Starobinsky, A. A., 1982, Phys. Lett. B 117, 175.
  145. Steinhardt, P. J. and M. S. Turner, 1984, Phys. Rev. D 29, 2162.
  146. Stevenson, D. J., 1991, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 29, 163.
  147. Suzuki, M., 1988, Phys. Rev. D 38, 1544.
  148. "t Hooft, G. 1976, Phys. Rev. Let. 37, 8.
  149. Timmes, F. X., 1996, unpublished.
  150. Tinney, C. G., 1995, Ed., The Bottom of the Main Sequence and Beyond (Springer, Berlin).
  151. Tipler, F. J., 1992, Phys. Lett. B 286, 36.
  152. Tolman, R. C., 1934, Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Cosmology (Clarendon Press, Oxford).
  153. Turner, M. S., 1983, Nature 306, 161.
  154. Visser, M., 1995, Lorentzian Wormholes: From Einstein to Hawking (AIP, Woodbury, NY).
  155. Voloshin, M. B., I. Yu. Kobzarev and L. B. Okun, 1975, Sov. J. Nucl. Phys. 20, 644.
  156. Weinberg, M. D., 1989, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 239, 549.
  157. Weinberg, S. 1972, Gravitation and Cosmology (Wiley, New York).
  158. Weinberg, S., 1977, The First Three Minutes (Basic, New York).
  159. Weinberg, S., 1978, Phys. Rev. Lett. 40, 223.
  160. Weinberg, S., 1980, Phys. Rev. D 22, 1694.
  161. Weinberg, S., 1989, Rev. Mod. Phys. 61, 1.
  162. Wilczek, F., 1978, Phys. Rev. Lett. 40, 279.
  163. Wilczek, F. and A. Zee, 1979, Phys. Lett. B 88, 311.
  164. Wood, M. A., 1992, Astrophys. J. 386, 529.
  165. Wright, E. L., et al., 1992, Astrophys. J. Lett. 396, L13.
  166. Zel"dovich, Ya. B., 1976, Phys. Lett. A 59, 254.
  167. Zinnecker, H., 1984, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 210, 43.
  168. Zuckerman, B., and M. A. Malkan, 1996, The Origin and Evolution of the Universe (Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, MA).

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 69, 337– Published 1 April, 1997

    © 1997 American Physical Society

    Sign In to Your Journals Account

    Filter

    Filter

    Article Lookup

    Enter a citation