- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Reviews of Modern Physics

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

Planetary radar astronomy

Steven J. Ostro

Steven J. Ostro

  • Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109

PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 65, 1235 – Published 1 October, 1993

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.65.1235

Abstract

Radar is a powerful technique that has furnished otherwise unavailable information about solar system bodies for three decades. The advantages of radar in planetary astronomy result from (1) the observer's control of all the attributes of the coherent signal used to illuminate the target, especially the wave form's time/frequency modulation and polarization; (2) the ability of radar to resolve objects spatially via measurements of the distribution of echo power in time delay and Doppler frequency; (3) the pronounced degree to which delay-Doppler measurements constrain orbits and spin vectors; and (4) centimeter-to-meter wavelengths, which easily penetrate optically opaque planetary clouds and cometary comae, permit investigation of near-surface macrostructure and bulk density, and are sensitive to high concentrations of metal or, in certain situations, ice. Planetary radar astronomy has primarily involved observations with Earth-based radar telescopes, but also includes some experiments with a spaceborne transmitter or receiver. In addition to providing a wealth of information about the geological and dynamical properties of asteroids, comets, the inner planets, and natural satellites, radar experiments have established the scale of the solar system, have contributed significantly to the accuracy of planetary ephemerides, and have helped to constrain theories of gravitation. This review outlines radar astronomical techniques and describes principal observational results.

View figure in article

References (294)

  1. A'Hearn, M. F., 1988, "Observations of cometary nuclei," Annu. Rev. Earth Planet Sci. 16, 273
  2. Anders, E., 1988, "Circumstellar material in meterorites: noble gases, carbon, and nitrogen," in Meteorites and the Early Solar System, edited by J. F. Kerridge and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 927
  3. Anderson, J. D., J. K. Campbell, R. F. Jurgens, E. L. Lau, X X Newhall, M. A. Slade III, and E. M. Standish, Jr., 1992, "Recent Developments in solar system tests of general relativity," in Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, edited by H. Sato and T. Nakamura (World Scientific, London), p. 353
  4. Anderson, J. D., M. S. W. Keesey, E. L. Lau, E. M. Standish, Jr., and X X Newhall, 1978, "Tests of general relativity using astrometric and radiometric observations of the planets," Acta Astron. 5, 43
  5. Anderson, J. D., M. A. Slade, R. F. Jurgens, E. L. Lau, X X Newhall, and E. M. Standish, Jr., 1991, "Radar and spacecraft ranging to Mercury," Proc. Astron. Soc. Aust. 9, 324
  6. Anderson, P. W., 1958, "Absence of diffusion in certain random lattices," Phys. Rev. 109, 1492
  7. Anderson, P. W.Arecibo Observatory User's Manual, 1989 (National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, Arecibo, Puerto Rico)
  8. Arvidson, R. E., R. Greeley, M. C. Malin, R. S. Saunders, V. R. Baker, C. Elachi, N. Izenberg, J. J. Plaut, E. R. Stofan, and M. K. Shepard, 1992, "Surface modification of Venus as inferred from Magellan observations of plains," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 303
  9. Ash, M. E., I. I. Shapiro, and W. B. Smith, 1967, "Astronomical constants and planetary ephemerides deduced from radar and optical observations," Astron. J. 72, 338
  10. Ash, M. E., I. I. Shapiro, and W. B. Smith, 1971, "The system of planetary masses," Science 174, 551
  11. Bahar, E., D. E. Barrick, and M. A. Fitzwater, 1983, "Computations of scattering cross sections for composite surfaces and the specification of the wavenumber where spectral splitting occurs," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. AP-31, 698
  12. Barsukov, V. L., et al., 1986, "The geology and geomorphology of the Venus surface as revealed by the radar images obtained by Veneras 15 and 16," J. Geophys. Res. 91, Suppl., D378
  13. Bay, Z., 1947, "Reflection of microwaves from the Moon," Hung. Acta Phys. 1, 1
  14. Beckmann, P., 1963, "Part I—Theory," in The Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves from Rough Surfaces, edited by P. Beckmann and A. Spizzichino (Pergamon, New York), p. 3
  15. Beehler, R. E., R. C. Mockler, and J. M. Richardson, 1965, "Cesium beam atomic time and frequency standards," Metrologia 1, 114
  16. Bell, J. F., D. R. Davis, W. K. Hartmann, and M. J. Gaffey, 1989, "Asteroids: the big picture," in Asteroids II, edited by R. P. Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 921
  17. Belton, M. J. S., W. H. Julian, A. J. Anderson, and B. E. A. Mueller, 1991, "The spin state and homogeneity of Comet Halley's nucleus," Icarus 93, 183
  18. Belton, M. J. S., et al., 1992, "Galileo encounter with 951 Gaspra: first pictures of an asteroid," Science 257, 1647
  19. Bergman, D. J., 1978, "The dielectric constant of a composite material—a problem in classical physics," Phys. Rep. C 43, 377
  20. Binzel, R. P., and S. Xu, 1993, "Chips off Asteroid 4 Vesta: Evidence for the parent body of basaltic achondrite meteorites," Science 260, 186
  21. Breit, G., and M. A. Tuve, 1926, "A test of the existence of the conducting layer," Phys. Rev. 28, 554
  22. Britt, D. T., D. J. Tholen, J. F. Bell, and C. M. Pieters, 1992, "Comparison of asteroid and meteorite spectra: classification by principal component analysis," Icarus 99, 153
  23. Brouwer, D., and G. M. Clemence, 1961, "Orbits and masses of planets and satellites," in Planets and Satellites, edited by G. P. Kuiper and B. M. Middlehurst (University of Chicago, Chicago), p. 31
  24. Burns, J. A., 1976, "Consequences of the tidal slowing of Mercury," Icarus 28, 453
  25. Burns, B. A., and D. B. Campbell, 1985, "Radar evidence for cratering on Venus," J. Geophys. Res. 90, 3037
  26. Butler, B., D. O. Muhleman, and M. A. Slade, 1993, "Mercury: full disk radar images and the detection and stability of ice at the north pole," J. Geophys. Res. 98, 15 003
  27. Campbell, D. B., and B. A. Burns, 1980, "Earth-based radar imagery of Venus," J. Geophys. Res. 85, 8271
  28. Campbell, D. B., R. B. Dyce, R. P. Ingalls, G. H. Pettengill, and I. I. Shapiro, 1972, "Venus: topography revealed by radar data," Science 175, 514
  29. ampbell, D. B., J. K. Harmon, and I. I. Shapiro, 1989, "Radar observations of Comet Halley," Astrophys. J. 338, 1094
  30. Campbell, D. B., J. W. Head, J. K. Harmon, and A. A. Hine, 1983, "Venus: identification of banded terrain in the mountains of Ishtar Terra," Science 221, 644
  31. Campbell, D. B., J. W. Head, J. K. Harmon, and A. A. Hine, 1984, "Venus: volcanism and rift formation in Beta Regio," Science 226, 167
  32. Campbell, D. B., J. W. Head, A. A. Hine, J. K. Harmon, D. A. Senske, and P. C. Fisher, 1989, "Styles of volcanism on Venus: New Arecibo high resolution radar data," Science 246, 373
  33. Campbell, D. B., D. A. Senske, J. W. Head, A. A. Hine, and P. C. Fisher, 1991, "Venus southern hemisphere: geologic character and age of terrains in the Themis-Alpha-Lada region," Science 251, 180
  34. Campbell, D. B., N. J. S. Stacy, W. I. Newman, R. E. Arvidson, E. M. Jones, G. S. Musser, A. Y. Roper, and C. Schaller, 1992, "Magellan observations of extended impact crater related features on the surface of Venus," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 16 249
  35. Campbell, M. J., and J. Ulrichs, 1969, "Electrical properties of rocks and their significance for lunar radar observations," J. Geophys. Res. 74, 5867
  36. Carpenter, R. L., 1964, "Study of Venus by cw radar," Astron. J. 69, 2
  37. Cassen, P., and A. P. Boss, 1988, "Protostellar collapse, dust grains, and solar-system formation," in Meteorites and the Early Solar System, edited by J. F. Kerridge and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 304
  38. Chandrasekhar, S., 1960, Radiative Transfer (Dover, New York)
  39. Chapman, C. R., 1979, "The asteroids: nature, interrelations, origins, and evolution," in Asteroids, edited by T. Gehrels (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 25
  40. Chavineau, B., P. Farinella, and F. Mignard, 1991, "The lifetime of binary asteroids vs gravitational encounters and collisions," Icarus 94, 299
  41. Colombo, G., 1965, "On the rotational period of the planet Mercury," Nature 208, 575
  42. Colombo, G., and I. I. Shapiro, 1966, "The rotation of the planet Mercury," Astrophys. J. 145, 296
  43. Connerney, J. E. P., and N. F. Ness, 1988, "Mercury's magnetic field and interior," in Mercury, edited by F. Vilas, C. R. Chapman, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 494
  44. Cormier, R. A., and A. Mizuhara, 1992, "250-kW cw klystron amplifier for planetary radar," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. 40, 1056
  45. Counselman, C. C., 1969, "Spin-orbit resonance of Mercury," Ph.D. thesis (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
  46. Cruikshank D. P., D. J. Tholen, W. K. Hartmann, J. F. Bell, and R. H. Brown, 1991, "Three basaltic Earth-approaching asteroids and the source of the basaltic meteorites," Icarus 89, 1
  47. Davies, M. E., T. R. Colvin, P. G. Rogers, P. W. Chodas, W. L. Sjogren, E. L. Akim, V. A. Stepanyantz, Z. P. Vlasova, and A. I. Zakharov, 1992, "The rotation period, direction of the north pole, and geodetic control network of Venus," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 12 141
  48. Deley, G. W., 1970, "Waveform Design," in Radar Handbook, edited by M. I. Skolnik (McGraw-Hill, New York), p. 3-1
  49. de Pater, I., P. Palmer, L. E. Snyder, S. J. Ostro, D. K. Yeomans, and D. L. Mitchell, 1992, "Bistatic radar observations of asteroids 324 Bamberga, 7 Iris, and 1991 EE," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 24, 934
  50. Dewitt, J. M., Jr., and E. K. Stodola, 1949, "Detection of radio signals reflected from the Moon," Proc. IRE 37, 229
  51. Downs, G. S., P. E. Reichley, and R. R. Green, 1975, "Radar measurements of Martian topography and surface properties: the 1971 and 1973 oppositions," Icarus 26, 273
  52. Dvorsky, J. D., N. A. Renzetti, and D. E. Fulton, 1992, "The Goldstone solar system radar: a science instrument for planetary research" (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA), Publication 92-29
  53. Dyce, R. B., G. H. Pettengill, and I. I. Shapiro, 1967, "Radar determination of the rotations of Venus and Mercury, Astron. J. 72, 351
  54. Edde B., 1993, Radar: Principles, Technology, Applications (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ)
  55. Elachi, C., 1987, Spaceborne Radar Remote Sensing: Applications and Techniques (IEEE, New York)
  56. Elachi, C., E. Im, L. E. Roth, and C. L. Werner, 1991, "Cassini Titan radar mapper," Proc. IEEE 79, 867
  57. Eshleman, V. R., 1986a, "Mode decoupling during retrorefraction as an explanation for bizarre radar echoes from icy moons," Nature 319, 755
  58. Eshleman, V. R., 1986b, "Radar glory from buried craters on icy moons," Science 234, 587
  59. Etemad, S., R. Thompson, and M. J. Andrejco, 1986, "Weak localization of photons: universal fluctuations and ensemble averaging," Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 575
  60. Evans, J. V., 1960, "Radar astronomy," Contemp. Phys. 2, 116
  61. Evans, J. V., 1962, "Radar echo studies of the Moon," in Physics and Astronomy of the Moon, edited by Z. Kopal (Academic, London), p. 429
  62. Evans, J. V., and G. H. Pettengill, 1963, "The scattering behavior of the Moon at wavelengths of 3.6, 68, and 784 centimeters," J. Geophys. Res. 68, 423
  63. Farinella, P., 1992, "Evolution of Earth-crossing binary asteroids due to gravitational encounters with the Earth," Icarus 96, 284
  64. Ford, P. G., F. Liu, and G. H. Pettengill, 1992, "Pancakelike domes on Venus," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 15 967
  65. Ford, P. G., and G. H. Pettengill, 1992, "Venus topography and kilometer-scale slopes," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 103
  66. Gaffey, M. J., J. F. Bell, and D. P. Cruikshank, 1989, "Reflectance spectroscopy and asteroid surface mineralogy," in Asteroids II, edited by R. P. Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 98
  67. Garvin, J. B., J. W. Head, G. H. Pettengill, and S. H. Zisk, 1985, "Venus global radar reflectivity and correlations with elevation," J. Geophys. Res. 90, 6859
  68. Gault, D. E., J. A. Burns, and P. Cassen, 1977, "Mercury," Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 15, 97
  69. Gilvarry, J. J., 1953, "Relativity precession of the asteroid Icarus," Phys. Rev. 89, 1046
  70. Goldreich, P., and S. J. Peale, 1966, "Spin-orbit coupling in the solar system," Astron. J. 71, 425
  71. Goldstein, R. M., 1964, "Venus characteristics by Earth-based radar," Astron. J. 69, 12
  72. Goldstein, R. M., 1965, "Preliminary Venus radar results," Radio Sci. D 69, 1623
  73. Goldstein, R. M., 1968, "Radar observations of Icarus," Science 162, 903
  74. Goldstein, R. M., 1971, "Radar observations of Mercury," Astron. J. 76, 1152
  75. Goldstein, R. M., and R. R. Green, 1980, "Ganymede: radar surface characteristics," Science 207, 179
  76. Goldstein, R. M., R. R. Green, G. H. Pettengill, and D. B. Campbell, 1977, "The rings of Saturn: two-frequency radar observations," Icarus 30, 104
  77. Goldstein, R. M., R. R. Green, and H. C. Rumsey, 1978, "Venus radar brightness and altitude images," Icarus 36, 334
  78. Goldstein, R. M., R. F. Jurgens, and Z. Sekanina, 1984, "A radar study of Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock 1983d," Astron. J. 89, 1745
  79. Goldstein, R. M., and H. C. Rumsey, 1972, "A radar image of Venus," Icarus 17, 699
  80. Greeley, R., et al., 1992, "Aeolian features on Venus: preliminary Magellan results," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 319
  81. Green, P. E., Jr., 1962, "Radar astronomy measurement techniques" (MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, MA), Technical Report No. 282
  82. Grieg, D. D., S. Metzger, and R. Waer, 1948, "Considerations of Moon-relay communication," Proc. IRE 36, 652
  83. Grossman, A. W., and D. O. Muhleman, 1992, "Observations of Titan's radio light-curve," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 24, 954
  84. Hagfors, T., 1964, "Backscatter from an undulating surface with applications to radar returns from the Moon," J. Geophys. Res. 69, 3779
  85. Hagfors, T., 1967, Radar Studies of the Moon, Final Report, Vol. 1 (MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, MA)
  86. Hagfors, T., and D. B. Campbell, 1973, "Mapping of planetary surfaces by radar," Proc. IEEE 61, 1219
  87. Hagfors, T., T. Gold, and M. Ierkic, 1985, "Refraction scattering as origin of the anomalous radar returns of Jupiter's satellites," Nature 315, 637
  88. Hagfors, T., and W. Kofman, 1991, "Mapping of overspread targets in radar astronomy," Radio Sci. 26, 403
  89. Hagfors, T., B. Nanni, and K. Stone, 1968, "Aperture synthesis in radar astronomy and some applications to lunar and planetary studies," Radio Sci. 3, 491
  90. Hansen, J. E., and L. D. Travis, 1974, "Light scattering in planetary atmospheres," Space Sci. Rev. 16, 527
  91. Hapke, B., 1993, Theory of Reflectance and Emittance Spectroscopy (Cambridge University Press, New York)
  92. Hapke, B., 1990, "Coherent backscatter and the radar characteristics of outer planet satellites," Icarus 88, 407
  93. Hapke, B., and D. Blewett, 1991, "Coherent backscattering model for the unusual radar reflectivity of icy satellites," Nature 352, 46
  94. Hapke, B. W., R. M. Nelson, and W. D. Smythe, 1993, "The opposition effect of the Moon: the contribution of coherent backscatter," Science 260, 509
  95. Harkness, W., 1981, The Solar Parallax and Its Related Constants, Including the Figure and Density of the Earth (U.S. GPO, Washington, DC)
  96. Harmon, J. K., D. B. Campbell, D. L. Bindschadler, J. W. Head, and I. I. Shapiro, 1986, "Radar altimetry of Mercury: a preliminary analysis," J. Geophys. Res. 91, 385
  97. Harmon, J. K., D. B. Campbell, A. A. Hine, I. I. Shapiro, and B. G. Marsden, 1989, "Radar observations of Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock 1983d," Astrophys. J. 338, 1071
  98. Harmon, J. K., D. B. Campbell, and S. J. Ostro, 1982, "Dualpolarization radar observations of Mars: Tharsis and environs," Icarus 52, 171
  99. Harmon, J. K., and S. J. Ostro, 1985, "Mars: dual-polarization radar observations with extended coverage," Icarus 62, 110
  100. Harmon, J. K., and M. A. Slade, 1992, "Radar mapping of Mercury: full-disk images and polar anomalies," Science 258, 640
  101. Harmon, J. K., M. A. Slade, and R. S. Hudson, 1992, "Mars radar scattering: Arecibo/Goldstone results at 12.6-cm and 3.5-cm wavelengths," Icarus 98, 240
  102. Harmon, J. K., M. P. Sulzer, P. J. Perillat, and J. F. Chandler, 1992, "Mars radar mapping: strong backscatter from the Elysium basin and outflow channel," Icarus 95, 153
  103. Hartmann, W. K., 1979, "Diverse puzzling asteroids and a possible unified explanation," in Asteroids, edited by T. Gehrels (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 466
  104. Head, J. W., D. B. Campbell, C. Elachi, J. E. Guest, D. P. McKenzie, R. S. Saunders, G. G. Schaber, and G. Schubert, 1991, "Venus volcanism: initial analysis from Magellan data," Science 252, 276
  105. Head, J. W., L. S. Crumpler, J. C. Aubele, J. E. Guest, and R. S. Saunders, 1992, "Venus volcanism: classification of volcanic features and structures, associations, and global distribution from Magellan data," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 153
  106. Helin, E. F., 1989, IAU Circ. No. 4831
  107. Hellings, R. W., 1984, "Testing relativity with solar system dynamics," in General Relativity and Gravitation, edited by B. Bertotti, F. de Felice, and A. Pascolini (Reidel, Dordrecht), p. 365
  108. Hellings, R. W., P. J. Adams, J. D. Anderson, M. S. Keesey, E. L. Lau, E. M. Standish, V. M. Canuto, and I. Goldman, 1983, "An experimental test of the variability of G using Viking Lander ranging data," Phys. Rev. Lett. 51, 1609
  109. Hewitt, R. H., and H. E. Newsom, 1988, "Igneous activity in the early solar system," in Meteorites and the Early Solar System, edited by J. F. Kerridge and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 73
  110. Hill, G. W., 1873, "On the derivation of the mass of Jupiter from the motion of certain asteroids," Mem. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. IX, 417 [Memoir No. 11 in Collected Mathematical Works of G. W. Hill, pp. 105-108.]
  111. Hill, R. D., 1991, "Origins of radar," Eos. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 72, 781
  112. Hudson, R. S., 1991, "Radar imaging for aircraft identification and planetary astronomy," Ph.D. thesis (California Institute of Technology)
  113. Hudson, R. S., 1993, "Three-dimensional reconstruction of asteroids from radar observations," Remote Sensing Rev. 8, 195
  114. Hudson, R. S., and S. J. Ostro, 1990, "Doppler radar imaging of spherical planetary surfaces," J. Geophys. Res. 95, 10947
  115. Hunten, D. M., M. G. Tomasko, F. M. Flasar, R. E. Samuelson, D. F. Strobel, and D. J. Stevenson, 1984, "Titan," in Saturn, edited by T. Gehrels and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 671
  116. Hut, P., E. M. Shoemaker, W. Alvarez, and A. Montanari, 1991, "Astronomical mechanisms and geologic evidence for multiple impacts on the Earth," Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. XXII, 603
  117. Jenkins, G. M., and D. G. Watts, 1968, Spectral Analysis and Its Applications (Holden-Day, San Francisco), p. 217
  118. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1983, "Technical Manual TN 03704 MP-1, TWM&CCR Assembly" (JPL, Pasadena, CA)
  119. John, S., 1990, "The localization of waves in disordered media," in Scattering and Localization of Classical Waves in Random Media, edited by P. Sheng (World Scientific, Singapore), p. 1
  120. John, S., 1991, "Localization of light," Phys. Today 44, No. 5, 32
  121. Jurgens, R. F., 1970, "Some preliminary results of the 70-cm radar studies of Venus," Radio Sci. 5, 435
  122. Jurgens, R. F., R. M. Goldstein, H. R. Rumsey, and R. R. Green, 1980, "Images of Venus by three-station radar interferometry—1977 results," J. Geophys. Res. 85, 8282
  123. Jurgens, R. F., M. A. Slade, and R. S. Saunders, 1988, "Evidence for highly reflecting materials on the surface and subsurface of Venus," Science 240, 1021
  124. Kamoun, P. G., D. B. Campbell, S. J. Ostro, G. H. Pettengill, and I. I. Shapiro, 1982, "Comet Encke: radar detection of nucleus," Science 216, 293
  125. Kamoun, P. G.D. B. CampbellS. J. OstroG. H. PettengillI. I. ShapiroKarttunen, H., P. Kröger, H. Oja, M. Poutanen, and K. J. Donner, 1987, Eds., Fundamental Astronomy (Springer, Berlin), p. 39
  126. Kelly, J. M., J. O. Stenoien, and D. E. Isbell, 1953, "Waveguide measurements in the microwave region on metal powders suspended in paraffin wax," J. Appl. Phys. 24, 258
  127. Kendall, M., and A. Stuart, 1977, The Advanced Theory of Statistics, Vol. 1, 4th ed. (MacMillan, New York), p. 398
  128. Kim, Y., and E. Rodriguez, 1992, "Comparison of the unified perturbation method with the two-scale expansion," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing 30, 510
  129. Klaasen, K. P., 1976, "Mercury's rotation axis and period," Icarus 28, 469
  130. Kolokolova, L. O., M. I. Mishchenko, and M. Wolff, 1993, "On the negative polarization of light scattered by subwavelength regolithic grains," Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 260, 550
  131. Kotel'nikov, V. A., 1965, "Radar observations of Venus in the Soviet Union in 1964," Radio Sci. D 69, 1634
  132. Kotel'nikov, V. A., et al., 1963, "Radar observations of Venus in the Soviet Union in 1962," Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 151, 532 [Sov. Phys. Dokl. 8, 642 (1964)]
  133. Kotel'nikov, V. A., et al., 1983, "39-cm radar observations of Mars in 1980," Astron. Zh. 60, 422 [Sov. Astron. 27, 246 (1983)]
  134. Kraus, J. D., 1986, Radio Astronomy (Cygnus-Quasar, Powell, OH)
  135. Lee, P. A., and T. V. Ramakrishnan, 1985, "Disordered electronic systems," Rev. Mod. Phys. 57, 287
  136. Leick, A., 1990, GPS Satellite Surveying (Wiley, New York)
  137. Levi, B. G., 1991, "Light travels more slowly through strongly scattering materials," Phys. Today 44, No. 6, 17
  138. Lipa, B., and G. L. Tyler, 1976, "Surface slope probabilities from the spectra of weak radar echoes: application to Mars," Icarus 28, 301
  139. Lipschutz, M. E., M. J. Gaffey, and P. Pellas, 1989, "Meteoritic parent bodies: nature, number, size and relation to presentday asteroids," in Asteroids II, edited by R. P. Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 777
  140. Long, M. W., 1965, "On the polarization and the wavelength dependence of sea echo," Trans. IEEE AP-14, 749
  141. MacKintosh, F. C., and S. John, 1988, "Coherent backscattering of light in the presence of time-reversal-noninvariant and parity-nonconserving media," Phys. Rev. B 37, 1884
  142. MacKintosh, F. C., and S. John, 1989, "Diffusing-wave spectroscopy and multiple scattering of light in correlated random media," Phys. Rev. B 40, 2383
  143. MacKintosh, F. C., J. X. Zhu, D. J. Pine, and D. A. Weitz, 1989, "Polarization memory of multiply scattered light," Phys. Rev. B 40, 9342
  144. Martelli, G., P. Rothwell, I. Giblin, P. N. Smith, M. DiMartino, and P. Farinella, 1993, "Fragment jets from catastrophic break-up events and the formation of asteroid binaries and families," Astron. Astrophys. 271, 315
  145. McCollom, T. M., and B. M. Jakosky, 1993, "Interpretation of planetary radar observations: the relationship between actual and inferred slope distributions," J. Geophys. Res. 98, 1173
  146. McFadden, L. A., D. J. Tholen, and G. J. Veeder, 1989, "Physical properties of Aten, Apollo, and Amor asteroids," in Asteroids II, edited by R. P. Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 442
  147. McGuire, J. B., E. R. Spangler, and L. Wong, 1961, "The size of the solar system," Sci. Am. 204, 64
  148. McKinnon, W. B., and E. M. Parmentier, 1986, "Ganymede and Callisto," in Satellites, edited by J. A. Burns and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 718
  149. Melosh, H. J., and J. A. Stansberry, 1991, "Doublet craters and the tidal disruption of binary asteroids," Icarus 94, 171
  150. Milani, A., M. Carpino, G. Hahn, and A. M. Nobili, 1989, "Dynamics of planet-crossing asteroids: classes of orbital behaviour. Project Spaceguard," Icarus 78, 212
  151. Mishchenko, M. I., 1992a, "Enhanced backscattering of polarized light from discrete random media: calculations in exactly the backscattering direction," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 9, 978
  152. Mishchenko, M. I., 1992b, "Polarization characteristics of the coherent backscatter opposition effect," Earth, Moon, planets 58, 127
  153. Mishchenko, M. I., 1993, "On the nature of the polarization opposition effect exhibited by Saturn's rings," Astrophys. J. 411, 351
  154. Mofenson, J., 1946, "Radar echoes from the Moon," Electronics 19, 92
  155. Mofenson, J.Morrison, D., 1992, Ed., "The Spaceguard survey: Report of the NASA International Near-Earth-Object Detection Workshop" (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA)
  156. Moyer, T. D., 1971, "Mathematical formulation of the Double-Precision Orbit Determination Program (DPODP)" (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA), JPL Technical Report No. 32-1527, p. 160
  157. Muhleman, D. O., 1966, "Planetary characteristics from radar observations," Space Sci. Rev. 6, 341
  158. Muhleman, D. O., B. J. Butler, A. W. Grossman, and M. A. Slade, 1991, "Radar images of Mars," Science 253, 1508
  159. Muhleman, D. O., A. W. Grossman, B. J. Butler, and M. A. Slade, 1990, "Radar reflectivity of Titan," Science 248, 975
  160. Muhleman, D. O., A. W. Grossman, M. A. Slade, and B. J. Butler, 1992, "The surface of Titan and Titan's rotation: What is radar telling us?" Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 24, 954
  161. Muhleman, D. O., D. B. Holdridge, and N. Block, 1962, "The astronomical unit determined by radar reflections from Venus," Astron. J. 67, 191
  162. Muinonen, K., 1990, "Light scattering by inhomogeneous media: backward enhancement and reversal of linear polarization," Ph.D. thesis (University of Helsinki, Finland)
  163. Nash, D. B., M. H. Carr, J. Gradie, D. M. Hunten, and C. F. Yoder, 1986, "Io," in Satellites, edited by J. A. Burns and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 629
  164. Newhall, X X, E. M. Standish, and J. G. Williams, 1983, "DE 102: A numerically integrated ephemeris of the Moon and planets spanning forty-four centuries," Astron. Astrophys. 125, 150
  165. Nielson, L. E., 1974, "The permittivity of suspensions and two-phase mixtures," J. Phys. D 7, 1549
  166. Nobili, A. M., and C. M. Will, 1986, "The real value of Mercury's perihelion advance," Nature 320, 39
  167. Ogilvy, J. A., 1991, Theory of Wave Scattering from Random Rough Surfaces (Adam Hilger, New York)
  168. Ostro, S. J., 1987, "Benefits of an upgraded Arecibo Observatory for radar observations of asteroids and natural satellites," in Proceedings of the Arecibo Upgrading Workshop, edited by J. H. Taylor and M. M. Davis (National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, Arecibo, Puerto Rico), p. 233
  169. Ostro, S. J., D. B. Campbell, J. F. Chandler, A. A. Hine, R. S. Hudson, K. D. Rosema, and I. I. Shapiro, 1991, "Asteroid 1986 DA: radar evidence for a metallic composition," Science 252, 1399
  170. Ostro, S. J., D. B. Campbell, J. F. Chandler, I. I. Shapiro, A. A. Hine, R. Velez, R. F. Jurgens, K. D. Rosema, R. Winkler, and D. K. Yeomans, 1991, "Asteroid radar astrometry," Astron. J. 102, 1490
  171. Ostro, S. J., D. B. Campbell, A. A. Hine, I. I. Shapiro, J. F. Chandler, C. L. Werner, and K. D. Rosema, 1990, "Radar images of Asteroid 1627 Ivar," Astron. J. 99, 2012
  172. Ostro, S. J., D. B. Campbell, and I. I. Shapiro, 1985, "Mainbelt asteroids: Dual-polarization radar observations," Science 229, 442
  173. Ostro, S. J., D. B. Campbell, and I. I. Shapiro, 1986, "Radar detection of 12 asteroids from Arecibo," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 18, 796
  174. Ostro, S. J., et al., 1992, "Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto: new radar results Arecibo and Goldstone," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 18 227
  175. Ostro, S. J., J. F. Chandler, A. A. Hine, I. I. Shapiro, K. D. Rosema, and D. K. Yeomans, 1990, "Radar images of Asteroid 1989 PB," Science 248, 1523
  176. Ostro, S. J., R. Connelly, and L. Belkora, 1988, "Asteroid shapes from radar echo spectra: a new theoretical approach," Icarus 73, 15
  177. Ostro, S. J., J. K. Harmon, A. A. Hine, P. Perillat, D. B. Campbell, J. F. Chandler, I. I. Shapiro, R. F. Jurgens, and D. K. Yeomans, 1991, "High-resolution radar ranging to near-earth asteroids," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 23, 1144
  178. Ostro, S. J., et al., 1993, "Radar imaging of Asteroid 4179 Toutatis," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 25, 1126
  179. Ostro, S. J., R. F. Jurgens, D. K. Yeomans, E. M. Standish, and W. Greiner, 1989, "Radar detection of Phobos," Science 243, 1584
  180. Ostro, S. J., G. H. Pettengill, D. B. Campbell, and R. M. Goldstein, 1982, "Delay-Doppler radar observations of Saturn's rings," Icarus 49, 367
  181. Ostro, S. J., K. D. Rosema, D. B. Campbell, J. F. Chandler, and I. I. Shapiro, 1990, "Io's radar properties," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 22, 1109
  182. Ostro, S. J., K. D. Rosema, and R. F. Jurgens, 1990, "The shape of Eros," Icarus 84, 334
  183. Ostro, S. J., and E. M. Shoemaker, 1990, "The extraordinary radar echoes from Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto: a geological perspective," Icarus 85, 335
  184. Ozrin, V. D., 1992, "Exact solution for coherent backscattering of polarized light from a random medium of Rayleigh scatters," Waves Random Med. 2, 141
  185. Paige, D. A., S. E. Wood, and A. R. Vasavada, 1992, "The thermal stability of water ice at the poles of Mercury," Science 258, 643
  186. Parker, M. N., 1974, "Radio-wave scattering from rough surfaces and the estimation of surface shape," Ph.D. thesis (Stanford University)
  187. Parker, M. N., and G. L. Tyler, 1973, "Bistatic radar estimation of surface-slope probability distributions with applications to the Moon," Radio Sci. 8, 177
  188. Peale, S. J., 1969, "Generalized Cassini's Laws," Astron. J. 74, 483
  189. Peale, S. J., 1976, "Does Mercury have a molten core?" Nature 262, 765
  190. Peale, S. J., 1988, "The rotational dynamics of Mercury and the state of its core," in Mercury, edited by F. Vilas, C. R. Chapman, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 461
  191. Peale, S. J., 1989, "On the density of Halley's Comet," Icarus 82, 36
  192. Peale, S. J., 1992, "On LAMS and SAMs for Halley's rotation," in Asteroids, Comets, Meteors 1991, edited by A. W. Harris and E. Bowell (Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston), p. 459
  193. Peters, K. J., 1992, "The coherent backscatter effect: a vector formulation accounting for polarization and absorption effects and small or large scatterers," Phys. Rev. B 46, 801
  194. Pettengill, G. H., 1970, "Radar astronomy," in Radar Handbook, edited by M. I. Skolnik (McGraw-Hill, New York), p. 33-1
  195. Pettengill, G. H., H. W. Briscoe, J. V. Evans, E. Gehrels, G. M. Hyde, L. G. Kraft, R. Price, and W. B. Smith, 1962, "A radar investigation of Venus," Astron. J. 67, 181
  196. Pettengill, G. H., and R. B. Dyce, 1965, "A radar determination of the rotation of the planet Mercury," Nature 206, 1240
  197. Pettengill, G. H., R. B. Dyce, and D. B. Campbell, 1967, "Radar measurements at 70 cm of Venus and Mercury," Astron. J. 72, 330
  198. Pettengill, G. H., E. Eliason, P. G. Ford, G. B. Loriot, H. Masursky, and G. E. McGill, 1980, "Pioneer Venus radar results: altimetry and surface properties," J. Geophys. Res. 85, 8261
  199. Pettengill, G. H., P. G. Ford, and B. D. Chapman, 1988, "Venus: surface electromagnetic properties," J. Geophys. Res. 93, 14 881
  200. Pettengill, G. H., P. G. Ford, W. T. K. Johnson, R. K. Raney, and L. A. Soderblom, 1991, "Magellan: radar performance and data products," Science 252, 260
  201. Pettengill, G. H., P. G. Ford, and R. J. Wilt, 1992, "Venus surface radiothermal emission as observed by Magellan," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 091
  202. Pettengill, G. H., and I. I. Shapiro, 1965, "Radar astronomy," Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 3, 377
  203. Pettengill, G. H., I. I. Shapiro, M. E. Ash, R. P. Ingalls, L. P. Rainville, W. B. Smith, and M. L. Stone, 1969, "Radar observations of Icarus," Icarus 10, 432
  204. Phillips, R. J., R. E. Arvidson, J. M. Boyce, D. B. Campbell, J. E. Guest, G. G. Schaber, and L. A. Soderblom, 1991, "Impact craters on Venus: initial analysis from Magellan," Science 252, 288
  205. Phillips, R. J., R. F. Raubertas, R. E. Arvidson, I. C. Sarkar, R. R. Herrick, N. Izenberg, and R. E. Grimm, 1992, "Impact craters and Venus resurfacing history," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 15 923
  206. Pollack, J. B., and L. Whitehill, 1972, "A multiple-scattering model of the diffuse component of lunar radar echoes," J. Geophys. Res. 77, 4289
  207. Priest, P., 1993, "Goldstone solar system radar capability and performance" (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA), Internal Report 1740-4
  208. Rabe, E., 1971, "The use of asteroids for determinations of masses and other fundamental constants," in Physical Studies of Minor Planets, NASA SP-267, edited by T. Gehrels (Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA, Washington, DC), p. 13
  209. Ramsey, N. F., 1988, "The precise measurement of time," Am. Sci. 76, 42
  210. Ramsey, N. F., 1990, "Experiments with separated oscillatory fields and hydrogen masers," Science 248, 1612
  211. Reasenberg, R. D., 1983, "The constancy of G and other gravitational experiments," Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 310, 227
  212. Reasenberg, R. D., I. I. Shapiro, P. E. MacNeil, R. B. Goldstein, J. C. Breidenthal, J. P. Brenkle, D. L. Cain, T. M. Kaufman, T. A. Komarek, and A. I. Zygielbaum, 1979, "VIKING relativity experiment: verification of signal retardation by solar gravity," Astrophys. J. 234, L219
  213. Roth, L. E., G. S. Downs, R. S. Saunders, and G. Schubert, 1980, "Radar altimetry of South Tharsis, Mars," Icarus 42, 287
  214. Roth, L. E., R. S. Saunders, G. S. Downs, and G. Schubert, 1989, "Radar altimetry of large Martian craters," Icarus 79, 289
  215. Russell, H. N., 1900, "The general perturbations of the major axis of Eros by the action of Mars," Astron. J. 21, 25
  216. Samarasinha, N. H., and M. F. A'Hearn, 1991, "Observational and dynamical constraints on the rotation of Comet P/Halley," Icarus 93, 194
  217. Schaber, G. G., R. G. Strom, H. J. Moore, L. A. Soderblom, R. L. Kirk, D. J. Chadwick, D. D. Dawson, L. R. Gaddis, J. M. Boyce, and J. Russell, 1992, "Geology and distribution of impact craters on Venus: What are they telling us?" J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 257
  218. Seidelmann, P. K., B. Guinot, and L. E. Doggett, 1992, "Time," in Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, edited by P. K. Seidelmann (University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA), p. 39
  219. Seidelmann, P. K., and G. A. Wilkins, 1992, "Introduction to positional astronomy," in Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, edited by P. K. Seidelmann (University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA), p. 1
  220. Shapiro, I. I., 1964, "Fourth test of general relativity," Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 789
  221. Shapiro, I. I., 1965, "Radar determination of the astronomical unit," paper presented to the IAU Symposium No. 21, Paris, Bull. Astron. 25, 177
  222. Shapiro, I. I., 1966, "Testing general relativity with radar," Phys. Rev. 141, 1219
  223. Shapiro, I. I., 1967, "Theory of the radar determination of planetary rotations," Astron. J. 72, 1309
  224. Shapiro, I. I., 1968, "Spin and orbital motions of the planets," in Radar Astronomy, edited by J. V. Evans and T. Hagfors (McGraw-Hill, New York), p. 143
  225. Shapiro, I. I., 1980, "Experimental tests of the general theory of relativity," in General Relativity and Gravitation, Vol. 2, edited by A. Held (Plenum, New York), p. 469
  226. Shapiro, I. I., 1987, "Radar tests of gravitational theories and other exotica," in Proceedings of the Arecibo Upgrading Workshop, edited by J. H. Taylor and M. M. Davis (National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, Arecibo, Puerto Rico), p. 225
  227. Shapiro, I. I., M. E. Ash, R. P. Ingalls, W. P. Smith, D. B. Campbell, R. B. Dyce, R. F. Jurgens, and G. H. Pettengill, 1971, "Fourth test of general relativity: new radar result," Phys. Rev. Lett. 26, 1132
  228. Shapiro, I. I., M. E. Ash, and W. B. Smith, 1968, "Icarus: further confirmation of the relativistic perihelion precession," Phys. Rev. Lett. 20, 1517
  229. Shapiro, I. I., M. E. Ash, and M. J. Tausner, 1966, "Radar verification of the Doppler formula," Phys. Rev. Lett. 17, 933
  230. Shapiro, I. I., D. B. Campbell, and W. M. De Campli, 1979, "Nonresonance rotation of Venus?" Astrophys. J. 230, L123
  231. Shapiro, I. I., J. F. Chandler, D. B. Campbell, A. A. Hine, and N. J. S. Stacy, 1990, "The spin vector of Venus," Astron. J. 100, 1363
  232. Shapiro, I. I., G. H. Pettengill, M. E. Ash, R. P. Ingalls, D. B. Campbell, and R. B. Dyce, 1972, "Mercury's perihelion advance: determination by radar," Phys. Rev. Lett. 28, 1594
  233. Shapiro, I. I., G. H. Pettengill, M. E. Ash, M. L. Stone, W. B. Smith, R. P. Ingalls, and R. A. Brockelman, 1968, "Fourth test of general relativity: preliminary results," Phy. Rev. Lett. 20, 1265
  234. Shapiro, I. I., W. B. Smith, M. E. Ash, and S. Herrick, 1971, "General relativity and the orbit of Icarus," Astron. J. 76, 588
  235. Shapiro, I. I., W. B. Smith, M. B. Ash, R. P. Ingalls, and G. H. Pettengill, 1971, "Gravitational constant: experimental bound on its time variation," Phys. Rev. Lett. 26, 27
  236. Shapiro, I. I., S. H. Zisk, A. E. E. Rogers, M. A. Slade, and T. W. Thompson, 1972, "Lunar topography: global determination by radar," Science 172, 939
  237. Shoemaker, E. M., J. G. Williams, E. F. Helin, and R. F. Wolfe, 1979, "Earth-crossing asteroids: orbital classes, collision rates with Earth, and origin," in Asteroids, edited by T. Gehrels (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 253
  238. Shoemaker, E. M., R. F. Wolfe, and C. S. Shoemaker, 1990, "Asteroid and comet flux in the neighborhood of the Earth," in Global Catastrophes in Earth History; An Interdisciplinary Conference on Impacts, Volcanism and Mass Mortality (Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper. 247, Boulder), p. 155
  239. Sihvola, A. H., and J. A. Kong, 1988, "Effective permittivity of dielectric mixtures," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing 26, 420
  240. Simpson, R. A., 1973, "Lunar radar echoes: an interpretation emphasizing characteristics of the leading edge," Ph.D. thesis (Stanford University)
  241. Simpson, R. A., J. K. Harmon, S. H. Zisk, T. W. Thompson, and D. O. Muhleman, 1992, "Radar determination of Mars radar properties," in Mars, edited by H. Kieffer, B. Jakosky, C. Snyder, and M. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 652
  242. Simpson, R. A., and G. L. Tyler, 1982, "Radar scattering laws for the lunar surface," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. AP-30, 438
  243. Slade, M. A., B. J. Butler, and D. O. Muhleman, 1992, "Mercury radar imaging: evidence for polar ice," Science 258, 635
  244. Slade, M. A., Z. Zohar, and R. F. Jurgens, 1990, "Venus: improved spin vector from Goldstone radar observations," Astron. J. 100, 1369
  245. Solomon, S. C., and J. W. Head, 1991, "Fundamental issues in the geology and geophysics of Venus," Science 252, 252
  246. Solomon, S. C., J. W. Head, W. M. Kaula, D. McKenzie, B. Parsons, R. J. Phillips, G. Schubert, and M. Talwani, 1991, "Venus tectonics: initial analysis from Magellan," Science 252, 297
  247. Solomon, S. C., et al., 1992, "Venus tectonics: an overview of Magellan observations," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 199
  248. Sovers, O. J., and J. L. Fanselow, 1987, "Observation model and parameter partials for the JPL VLBI parameter estimation software MASTERFIT, 1987," Jet Propulsion Laboratory Publication No. 83-39, Rev. 3
  249. Stacy, N. J. S., 1993, "High-resolution synthetic aperture radar observations of the Moon," Ph.D. thesis (Cornell University)
  250. Standish, E. M., 1990, "The observational basis for JPL's DE200, the planetary ephemerides of the astronomical almanac," Astron. Astrophys. 233, 252
  251. Standish, E. M., and R. W. Hellings, 1989, "A determination of the masses of Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta from their perturbations upon the orbit of Mars," Icarus 80, 326
  252. Standish, E. M., X. X. Newhall, J. G. Williams, and D. K. Yeomans, 1992, "Orbital ephemerides of the Sun, Moon, and Planets," in Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, edited by P. K. Seidelmann (University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA), p. 279
  253. Stern, S. A., and F. Vilas, 1988, "Future observations of and missions to Mercury," in Mercury, edited by F. Vilas, C. R. Chapman, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 24
  254. Sulzer, M. P., 1986, "A radar technique for high range resolution incoherent scatter autocorrelation function measurements utilizing the full average power of klystron radars," Radio Sci. 21, 1033
  255. Sulzer, M. P., 1989, "Recent incoherent scatter techniques," Adv. Space Res. 9, 153
  256. Swindle, T. D., J. S. Lewis, and L. A. McFadden, 1991, "Near-Earth asteroids and the history of planetary formation," Eos 72, 473
  257. Thompson, T. W., S. H. Zisk, R. W. Shorthill, and J. A. Cutts, 1981, "Lunar craters with radar bright ejecta," Icarus 46, 201
  258. Thomson, J. H., 1963, "Planetary radar," Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 4, 347
  259. Thomson, J. H., and J. E. B. Ponsonby, 1968, "Two-dimensional aperture synthesis in lunar radar astronomy," Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 303, 477
  260. Tryka, K. A., and D. O. Muhleman, 1992, "Reflection and emission properties on Venus: Alpha Regio," J. Geophys. Res. 97, 13 379
  261. Tyler, G. L., 1976, "Wavelength dependence in radio-wave scattering and specular point theory," Radio Sci. 11, 83
  262. Tyler, G. L., 1979, "Comparison of quasi-specular radar scatter from the Moon with surface parameters obtained from images," Icarus 37, 29
  263. Tyler, G. L., P. G. Ford, D. B. Campbell, C. Elachi, G. H. Pettengill, and R. A. Simpson, 1991, "Magellan: electrical and physical properties of Venus' surface," 252, 265
  264. Tyler, G. L., and R. A. Simpson, 1970, "Bistatic radar measurements of topographic variations in lunar surface slopes with Explorer 5," Radio Sci. 5, 263
  265. Tyler, G. L., R. A. Simpson, M. J. Maurer, and E. Holmann, 1992, "Scattering properties of the Venusian surface: preliminary results from Magellan," J. Geophys. Res. 98, 13 115
  266. Ulaby, F. T., R. K. Moore, and A. K. Fung, 1982, Microwave Remote Sensing, Vol. 1 (Addison-Wesley, Reading, PA)
  267. Ulaby, F. T., T. H. Bengal, M. C. Dobson, J. R. East, J. B. Garvin, and D. L. Evans, 1990, "Microwave dielectric properties of dry rocks," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing 28, 325
  268. van Albada, M. P., and A. Lagendijk, 1985, "Observation of weak localization of light in a random medium," Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 2692
  269. van Albada, M. P., M. B. van der Mark, and A. Lagendijk, 1990, "Experiments on weak localization of light and their interpretation," in Scattering and Localization of Classical Waves in Random Media, edited by P. Sheng (World Scientific, Singapore), p. 97
  270. van de Hulst, H. C., 1980, Multiple Light Scattering (Academic, New York)
  271. Wahr, J. M., 1988, "The Earth's rotation," Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 16, 231
  272. Warren, S. G., 1984, "Optical constants of ice from the ultraviolet to the microwave," Appl. Opt. 23, 1206
  273. Wasson, J. T., 1985, Meteorites: Their Record of Early Solar System History (Freeman, New York)
  274. Weidenschilling, S. J., 1980, "Hektor: nature and origin of a binary asteroid," Icarus 44, 807
  275. Weidenschilling, S. J., P. Paolicchi, and V. Zappalà, 1989, "Do asteroids have satellites?" in Asteroids II, edited by R. P. Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 643
  276. Weiss, M. A., and D. W. Allan, 1987, "An NBS calibration procedure for providing time and frequency at a remote site by weighting and smoothing of GPS common view data," IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. IM-36, 572
  277. Weissman, P. R., M. F. A'Hearn, L. A. McFadden, and H. Rickman, 1989, "Evolution of comets into asteroids," in Asteroids II, edited by R. P. Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 880
  278. Wetherill, G. W., 1977, "Evolution of the Earth's planetesimal swarm subsequent to the formation of the Earth and Moon," Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 8th, 1
  279. Wetherill, G. W., 1988, "Where do the Apollo objects come from?" Icarus 76, 1
  280. Wetherill, G. W., and C. R. Chapman, 1988, "Asteroids and meteorites," in Meteorites and the Early Solar System, edited by J. F. Kerridge and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 35
  281. Whipple, F. L., 1987, "The cometary nucleus: current concepts," Astron. Astrophys. 187, 852
  282. Will, C. M., 1984, "The confrontation between general relativity and experiment: an update," Phys. Rep. 113, 345
  283. Will, C. M., 1987, "Experimental gravitation from Newton's Principia to Einstein's General Relativity," in Three Hundred Years of Gravitation, edited by S. Hawking and W. Israel (Cambridge University, Cambridge, England), p. 80
  284. Williams, J. G., 1969, "Secular perturbations in the solar system," Ph.D. thesis (University of California at Los Angeles)
  285. Williams, J. G., 1984, "Determining asteroid masses from perturbations on Mars," Icarus 57, 1
  286. Williams, J. G., and E. M. Standish, 1989, "Dynamical reference frames in the planetary and Earth-Moon systems," in Reference Frames in Astronomy and Geophysics, edited by J. Kovalevsky, I. Mueller, and B. Kolaczek (Kluwer, Dordrecht), p. 67
  287. Wisdom, J., 1987, "Urey Prize lecture: Chaotic dynamics in the solar system," Icarus 72, 241
  288. Wolf, P., and G. Maret, 1985, "Weak localization and coherent backscattering of photons in disordered media," Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 2696
  289. Wood, J., 1985, "Meteoritic constraints on processes in the Solar Nebula: an overview," in Protostars & Planets II, edited by D. C. Black and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 687
  290. Wood, S. E., A. R. Vasavada, and D. A. Paige, 1992, "Temperatures in the polar regions of Mercury: Implications for water ice," Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 24, 957
  291. Yeomans, D. K., P. W. Chodas, M. S. Keesey, S. J. Ostro, J. F. Chandler, and I. I. Shapiro, 1992, "Asteroid and comet orbits using radar data," Astron. J. 103, 303
  292. Yeomans, D. K., S. J. Ostro, and P. W. Chodas, 1987, "Radar astrometry of near-Earth Asteroids," Astron. J. 94, 189
  293. Zinner, E., 1988, "Interstellar cloud material in meteorites," in Meteorites and the Early Solar System, edited by J. F. Kerridge and M. S. Matthews (University of Arizona, Tucson), p. 956
  294. Zisk, S. H., P. J. Mouginis-Mark, J. M. Goldspiel, M. A. Slade, and R. F. Jurgens, 1992, "Valley systems on Tyrrhena Patera, Mars: Earth-based radar measurements of slopes," Icarus 96, 226

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 65, 1235– Published 1 October, 1993

    © 1993 American Physical Society

    Sign In to Your Journals Account

    Filter

    Filter

    Article Lookup

    Enter a citation