- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Reviews of Modern Physics

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

Supernova mechanisms

H. A. Bethe

H. A. Bethe

  • Newman Laboratory of Nuclear Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853

PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 62, 801 – Published 1 October, 1990

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.62.801

Abstract

Supernovae of Type II occur at the end of the evolution of massive stars. The phenomenon begins when the iron core of the star exceeds a Chandrasekhar mass. The collapse of that core under gravity is well understood and takes a fraction of a second. To understand the phenomenon, a detailed knowledge of the equation of state at the relevant densities and temperatures is required. After collapse, the shock wave moves outward, but probably does not succeed in expelling the mass of the star. The most likely mechanism to do so is the absorption of neutrinos from the core by the material at medium distances. Observations and theory connected with SN 1987A are discussed, as are the conditions just before collapse and the emission of neutrinos by the collapsed core.

View figure in article

References (219)

  1. Aichelin, J., A. Rosenhauer, G. Peilert, H. Stöcker, and W. Greiner, 1987, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1926
  2. Ainsworth, T. L., E. Baron, G. E. Brown, J. Cooperstein, and M. Prakash, 1987, Nucl. Phys. A 464, 740
  3. Ainsworth, T. L., G. E. Brown, M. Prakash, and W. Weise, 1988, Phys. Lett. B 200, 413
  4. Andreani, P., R. Ferlet, and A. Vidal-Madjar, 1987, Nature 326, 770
  5. Arnett, W. D., 1966, Can. J. Phys. 44, 2553
  6. Arnett, W. D., 1967, Can. J. Phys. 45, 1621
  7. Arnett, W. D., 1968a, Astrophys. J. 153, 341
  8. Arnett, W. D., 1968b, Nature 219, 1344
  9. Arnett, W. D., 1969, Astrophys. Space Sci. 5, 180
  10. Arnett, W. D., 1971, Astrophys. J. 169, 113
  11. Arnett, W. D., 1972, Astrophys. J. 176, 681 (Part 1) ibid.176, 699 (Part II)
  12. Arnett, W. D., 1977, Astrophys. J. 218, 815
  13. Arnett, W. D., 1977b, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 35, 145
  14. Arnett, W. D., 1982, Astrophys. J. 253, 785
  15. Arnett, W. D., 1983, Astrophys. J. 263, L55
  16. Arnett, W. D., 1986, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 17, 908
  17. Arnett, W. D., 1987a, Astrophys. J. 319, 136
  18. Arnett, W. D., 1987b, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 19, 1072
  19. Arnett, W. D., 1988, in Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, edited by M. Kafatos and A. G. Michalitsianos (Cambrdige University, Cambridge, England), p. 301
  20. Arnett, W. D., 1989, Astrophys. J. 343, 834
  21. Arnett, W. D., J. N. Bahcall, R. P. Kirshner, and S. E. Woosley, 1989, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 27, 629
  22. Arnett, W. D., B. Fryxell, and E. Müller, 1989, Astrophys. J. 341, L63
  23. Arnett, W. D., and A. Fu, 1989, Astrophys. J. 340, 396
  24. Arnett, W. D., and J. L. Rosner, 1987, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1906
  25. Aufderheide, M. B., G. E. Brown, T. T. S. Kuo, D. B. Stout, and P. Vogel, 1990, Astrophys. J., in press
  26. Aufderheide, M. B., S. E. Woosley, and T. A. Weaver, 1990, unpublished
  27. Baade, W., F. Zwicky, 1934, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 20, 254
  28. Bahcall, J. N., and S. L. Glashow, 1987, Nature 326, 476
  29. Bahcall, J. N., T. Piran, W. H. Press, and D. N. Spergel, 1987, Nature 327, 682
  30. Bahcall, J. N., D. N. Spergel, and W. H. Press, 1988, in Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, edited by M. Kafatos and A. G. Michalitsianos (Cambridge University, Cambridge, England), p. 172
  31. Barkat, Z., and J. C. Wheeler, 1988, Astrophys. J. 332, 247
  32. Baron, E. A., and J. Cooperstein, 1988, unpublished
  33. Baron, E. A., and J. Cooperstein, 1990, Astrophys. J. 353, 597
  34. Baron, E. A., J. Cooperstein, and S. Kahana, 1985a, Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 126
  35. Baron, E. A., J. Cooperstein, and S. Kahana, 1985b, Nucl. Phys. A 440, 744
  36. Baron, E., J. Cooperstein, and S. Kahana, 1987, Astrophys. J. 320, 300
  37. Baym, G., H. A. Bethe, and C. J. Pethick, 1971, Nucl. Phys. A 175, 225
  38. Beaudet, G., V. Petrosian, and E. E. Salpeter, 1967, Astrophys. J. 150, 979
  39. Bethe, H. A., 1986, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 1305
  40. Bethe, H. A., 1988, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 38, 1
  41. Bethe, H. A., 1989, Phys. Rev. Lett. 63, 837
  42. Bethe, H. A., J. H. Applegate, and G. E. Brown, 1980, Astrophys. J. 241, 464
  43. Bethe, H. A., and G. E. Brown, 1989, unpublished
  44. Bethe, H. A., G. E. Brown, J. Applegate, and J. M. Lattimer, 1979, Nucl. Phys. A 324, 487
  45. Bethe, H. A., G. E. Brown, and J. Cooperstein, 1987, Astrophys. J. 320, 201
  46. Bethe, H. A., and M. B. Johnson, 1974, Nucl. Phys. A 230, 1
  47. Bethe, H. A., and P. Pizzochero, 1990, Astrophys. J. 350, L33
  48. Bethe, H. A., and J. R. Wilson, 1985, Astrophys. J. 295, 14
  49. Bionta, R. M., et al., 1987, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1494
  50. Blanco, V. M., et al., 1987, Astrophys. J. 320, 589
  51. Blaizot, J. P., 1980, Phys. Rep. 64, 171
  52. Blaizot, J. P., D. Gogny, and B. Grammaticos, 1976, Nucl. Phys. A 265, 315
  53. Bludman, S. A., 1988, Phys. Rep. 163, 47
  54. Bohigas, O., H. Krivine, and T. Treiner, 1980, Nucl. Phys. A 336, 155
  55. Böhm-Vitense, E., 1958, Z. Astrophys. 46, 108
  56. Bohr, A., and B. R. Mottelson, 1969, Nuclear Structure (Benjamin, New York/Amsterdam), Vol. I, p. 183
  57. Bonche, P., and D. Vautherin, 1981, Nucl. Phys. A 372, 476
  58. Bonche, P., and D. Vautherin, 1982, Astron. Astrophys. 112, 268
  59. Bowers, R. L., and J. R. Wilson, 1982a, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 50, 115
  60. Bowers, R. L., and J. R. Wilson, 1982b, Astrophys. J. 263, 366
  61. Branch, D., 1986, Astrophys. J. Lett. 320, L121
  62. Bratton, C. B., et al., 1988, Phys. Rev. D 37, 3361
  63. Brown, G. E., 1971, Rev. Mod. Phys. 43, 1
  64. Brown, G. E., 1988a, Phys. Rep. 163, 167
  65. Brown, G. E., 1988b, Nucl. Phys. A 488, 689
  66. Brown, G. E., 1988c, Z. Phys. C 38, 291
  67. Brown, G. E., H. A. Bethe, and G. Baym, 1982, Nucl. Phys. A 375, 481
  68. Brown, G. E., H. Müther, and M. Prakash, 1990, Nucl. Phys. 506, 565
  69. Brown, G. E., and E. O. Osnes, 1985, Phys. Lett. B 159, 223
  70. Brown, G. E., and M. Rho, 1981, Nucl. Phys. A 372, 397
  71. Brown, G. E., and P. Siemens, 1987, SUNY Stony Brook preprint
  72. Bruenn, S. W., 1985, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 58, 771
  73. Bruenn, S. W., 1988, Astrophys. Space Sci. 143, 15
  74. Bruenn, S. W., 1989a, Astrophys. J. 340, 955
  75. Bruenn, S. W., 1989b, Astrophys. J. 341, 385
  76. Bruenn, S. W., 1990, private communication
  77. Burrows, A., 1987, Astrophys. J. Lett. 328, L51
  78. Burrows, A., 1988, Astrophys. J. 334, 891
  79. Burrows, A., and J. M. Lattimer, 1985, Astrophys. J. 299, L19
  80. Burrows, A., and J. M. Lattimer, 1986, Astrophys. J. 307, 178
  81. Burrows, A., and J. M. Lattimer, 1987, Astrophys. J. Lett. 318, L63
  82. Burrows, A., and J. M. Lattimer, 1988, Phys. Rep. 163, 51
  83. Burrows, A., T. J. Mazurek, and J. M. Lattimer, 1981, Astrophys. J. 251, 325
  84. Casatella, A., et al., 1987, Astron. Astrophys. 177, L29
  85. Catchpole, R. M., et al., 1988, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 229, 15P
  86. Celenza, J. S., and C. M. Shakin, 1986, Relativistic Nuclear Physics (World Scientific, Singapore)
  87. Clark, D. H., and F. R. Stephenson, 1977, The Historical Supernovae (Pergamon, Oxford)
  88. Colgate, S. A., 1971, Astrophys. J. 163, 221
  89. Colgate, S. A., 1989, Nature 341, 489
  90. Colgate, S. A., and M. H. Johnson, 1960, Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 235
  91. Colgate, S. A., and C. McKee, 1969, Astrophys. J. 157, 623
  92. Colgate, S. A., and R. H. White, 1966, Astrophys. J. 143, 626
  93. Cooperstein, J., 1985, Nucl. Phys. A 438, 722
  94. Cooperstein, J., 1988a, Phys. Rev. C 37, 786
  95. Cooperstin, J., 1988b, Phys. Rep. 163, 95
  96. Cooperstein, J., and E. A. Baron, 1990, in Supernovae, edited by A. Petschek (Springer, Berlin), p. 213
  97. Cooperstein, J., H. A. Bethe, and G. E. Brown, 1984, Nucl. Phys. A 429, 527
  98. Cooperstein, J., L. J. van den Horn, and E. A. Baron, 1986, Astrophys. J. 309, 653 ibid.315, 729(E)
  99. Cooperstein, J., L. J. van den Horn, and E. A. baron, 1987, Astrophys. J. Lett. 321, L129
  100. Cooperstein, J., and J. Wambach, 1984, Nucl. Phys. A 420, 591
  101. de Rujula, A., 1987, Phys. Lett. B 193, 514
  102. Dicus, D. A., 1972, Phys. Rev. D 6, 941
  103. Dotani, T., et al., 1987, Nature 330, 230
  104. Ebisuzaki, T., T. Shigeyama, and K. Nomoto, 1989, Astrophys. J. 344, L65
  105. Ejiri, H., 1982, Phys. Rev. C 26, 217
  106. Elias, J. H., B. Gregory, M. M. Phillips, R. E. Williams, J. R. Graham, W. P. S. Meikle, R. D. Schwartz, and B. Wilking, 1988, Astrophys. J. 331, L9
  107. Elias, J. H., K. Mathews, G. Neugebauer, S. E. Pearson, 1985, preprint
  108. Fowler, W. A., and F. Hoyle, 1964, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 9, 201
  109. Freedman, D. Z., 1974, Phys. Rev. D 9, 1389
  110. Friedman, B., and V. R. Pandharipande, 1981, Nucl. Phys. A 361, 502
  111. Friman, B. L., and A. K. Dhar, 1979, Phys. Lett. B 85, 1
  112. Fryxell, B., E. Müller, and W. D. Arnett, 1990, Astrophys. J, in press
  113. Fuller, G. M., 1982, Astrophys. J. 252, 741
  114. Fuller, G. M., W. A. Fowler, M. J. Newman, 1982a, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 48, 279
  115. Fuller, G. M., W. A. Fowler, M. J. Newman, 1982b, Astrophys. J. 252, 715
  116. Gale, C., G. Bertsch, and S. Das Gupta, 1987, Phys. Rev. C 35, 1666
  117. Gilmozzi, R., et al., 1987, Nature 328, 318
  118. Gogny, D., 1975, in Nuclear Self-Consistent Fields, edited by G. Ripka and M. Porneuf (North-Holland, Amsterdam), p. 333
  119. Goldreich, P., and S. V. Weber, 1980, Astrophys. J. 238, 991
  120. Goodman, S. A., A. Dar, and S. Nussinov, 1987, Astrophys. J. 314, L7
  121. Hachisu et al., 1990
  122. Hamuy, M., et al., 1988, Astron. J. 95, 63
  123. Harris, J. W., et al., 1985, Phys. Lett. B 153, 377
  124. Helfand, D. J., and R. H. Becker, 1984, Nature 307, 215
  125. Henyey, L. G., J. E. Forbes, and N. L. Gould, 1964, Astrophys. J. 139, 306
  126. Hillebrandt, W., 1982a, in Supernovae: A Survey of Current Research, edited by M. J. Rees and R. J. Stoneham (Reidel, Dordrecht), p. 123
  127. Hillebrandt, W., 1982b, Astron. Astrophys. 110, L3
  128. Hillebrandt, W., 1984, Ann. N.Y. Acade. Sci. 422, 197
  129. Hillebrandt, W., K. Nomoto, and R. G. Wolff, 1984, Astron. Astrophys. 133, 175
  130. Hirata, K. S., et al., 1987, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1490
  131. Hirata, K. S., et al., 1988, Phys. Rev. D 38, 448
  132. Horowitz, C. J., and B. D. Serot, 1987, Nucl. Phys. A 464, 613
  133. Hoyle, F., and W. A. Fowler, 1960, Astrophys. J. 132, 565
  134. Jackson, A. D., 1983, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 33, 105
  135. Jackson, A. D., M. Rho, and E. Krotscheck, 1985, Nucl. Phys. A 407, 495
  136. Jaminon, M., C. Mahaux, and P. Rochus, 1985, Nucl. Phys. A 365, 371
  137. Johnson, C. H., D. J. Horen, and C. Mahaux, 1987, Phys. Rev. C 36, 2252
  138. Kettner, K. U., H. W. Becker, L. Buchmann, J. Görres, H. Kräwinkel, C. Rolfs, P. Schmalbrock, H. P. Trautvetter, and A. Vlieks, 1982, Z. Phys. A 308, 73
  139. Kirshner, R. P., G. Sonneborn, D. M. Crenshaw, and G. E. Nassiopoulos, 1987, Astrophys. J. 320, 602
  140. Kremer, R. M., C. A. Barnes, K. H. Chang, H. C. Evans, B. W. Filippone, K. H. Hahn, and L. W. Mitchell, 1988, Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 1475
  141. Kristian, J., et al., 1989, Nature 338, 234
  142. Kumagai, S., et al., 1989, Astrophys. J. 345, 412
  143. Lamb, D. Q., and C. J. Pethick, 1976, Astrophys. J. 209, L77
  144. Lamb, D. Q., J. M. Lattimer, C. J. Pethick, and D. G. Ravenhall, 1978, Phys. Rev. Lett. 41, 1623
  145. Lamb, D. Q., J. M. Lattimer, C. J. Pethick, and D. G. Ravenhall, 1981, Nucl. Phys. A 360, 459
  146. Landau, L. D., 1956, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 30, 1058 [Sov. Phys. JETP 3, 920 (1956)]
  147. Landau, L. D., 1957, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 32, 59 [Sov. Phys. JETP 5, 101 (1957)]
  148. Landau, L. D., 1958, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 35, 97 [Sov. Phys. JETP 8, 70 (1958)]
  149. Lattimer, J. M., and J. Cooperstein, 1988, Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 23
  150. Lattimer, J. M., and T. J. Mazurek, 1981, Astrophys. J. 246, 945
  151. Lattimer, J. M., C. J. Pethick, D. G. Ravenhall, and D. Q. Lamb, 1985, Nucl. Phys. A 432, 646
  152. Lee, T. D., and M. Margulies, 1975, Phys. Rev. D 11, 1591
  153. Lee, T. D., and G. C. Wick, 1974, Phys. Rev. D 9, 2291
  154. Machleidt, R., K. Holinde, and C. Elster, 1987, Phys. Rep. 149, 1
  155. Mahaux, C., and R. Sartor, 1987, Nucl. Phys. A 475, 247
  156. Marschall, L. A., 1988, The Supernova Story (Plenum, New York/London)
  157. Mayle, R., and J. R. Wilson, 1988, Astrophys. J. 334, 909
  158. Mazurek, T., 1975, Astrophys. Space Sci. 35, 117
  159. Mazurek, T. J., 1976, Astrophys. J. 207, L87
  160. Menzies, J. W., et al., 1987, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 227, 39P
  161. Migdal, A. B., 1967, Theory of Finite Fermi Systems and Applications to Atomic Nuclei (Interscience, New York)
  162. Mikheyev, S. P., and A. Yu. Smirnov, 1987, Sov. Phys. Usp. 30, 759
  163. Molitoris, J. J., D. Hahn, and H. Stöcker, 1985, Nucl. Phys. A 447, 13
  164. Molitoris, J. J., and H. Stöcker, 1985, Phys. Rev. C 32, 346
  165. Murdin, P., and L. Murdin, 1985, Supernovae (Cambridge University, Cambridge, England)
  166. Myra, E. S., S. A. Bludman, Y. Hoffman, I. Lichtenstadt, N. Sack, and K. A. Van Riper, 1987, Astrophys. J. 318, 744
  167. Myra, E. S., and S. A. Bludman, 1989, Astrophys. J. 340, 384
  168. Nomoto, K., 1984, Astrophys. J. 277, 791
  169. Nomoto, K., and M. Hashimoto, 1988, Phys. Rep. 163, 13
  170. Nomoto, K., and T. Shigeyama, 1988, in Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, edited by M. Kafatos and A. Michalitsianos (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England)
  171. Pandharipande, V. R., 1973, Nucl. Phys. A 217, 1
  172. Phillips, M., 1988, in Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, edited by M. Kafatos and A. Michalitsianos (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England), p. 16
  173. Pines, D., K. F. Quader, and J. Wambach, 1988, Nucl. Phys. A 477, 365
  174. Pinto, P. A., and S. E. Woosley, 1988a, Nature 333, 534
  175. Pinto, P. A., and S. E. Woosley, 1988b, Astrophys. J. 329, 820
  176. Pizzochero, P., 1990, Astrophys. J. 354, 333
  177. Ravenhall, D. G., C. D. Bennett, and C. J. Pethick, 1972, Phys. Rev. Lett. 28, 978
  178. Ravenhall, D. G., C. J. Pethick, and J. R. Wilson, 1983, Phys. Rev. Lett. 50, 2066
  179. Redder, A., et al., 1985, Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 1262
  180. Reid, R. V., 1968, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 50, 411
  181. Renfordt, R. E., et al., 1984, Phys. Rev. Lett. 53, 763
  182. Richtmyer, R. D., and K. W. Morton, 1957, Difference Methods for Initial-Value Problems (Interscience, New York)
  183. Saio, H., M. Kato, and K. Nomoto, 1988a, Astrophys. J. 331, 388
  184. Saio, H., K. Nomoto, and M. Kato, 1988b, Nature 334, 508
  185. Sato, K., 1975, Prog. Theor. Phys. 54, 1352
  186. Serot, B. D., J. D. Walecka, 1985, Adv. Nucl. Phys. 16, 1
  187. Shelton, I., O. Duhalde, and A. Jones, 1987, Int. Astron. Union Circular 4316
  188. Shigeyama, T., and K. Nomoto, 1990, Astrophys. J., in press
  189. Shigeyama, T., K. Nomoto, and M. Hashimoto, 1988, Astron. Astrophys. 196, 411
  190. Sonneborn, G., B. Altner, and R. P. Kirshner, 1987, Astrophys. J. 323, L35
  191. Soyeur, M., and G. E. Brown, 1979, Nucl. Phys. A 324, 464
  192. Spergel, D. N., and J. N. Bahcall, 1988, Phys. Lett. B 200, 366
  193. Spergel, D. N., T. Piran, A. Loeb, J. Goodman, and J. N. Bahcall, 1987, Science 237, 1471
  194. Stock, R., et al., 1982, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 1236
  195. Sunyaev, R. A., et al., 1987a, Pis'ma Astron. Zh. 13, 1027
  196. Sunyaev, R. A., et al., 1987b, Nature 330, 227
  197. Tanaka, Y., 1988, in Physics of Neutron Stars and Black Holes, edited by Y. Tanaka (Universal Academic, Tokyo), p. 431
  198. ter Haar, B., and R. Malfliet, 1986a, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 1237
  199. ter Haar, B., and R. Malfliet, 1986b, Phys. Lett. B 172, 10
  200. Thielemann, F. K., M. Hashimoto, and K. Nomoto, 1990, Astrophys. J. 349, 222
  201. Truran, J. W., and A. Weiss, 1987, Lect. Notes Phys. 287, 293
  202. Tubbs, D. L., and D. N. Schramm, 1975, Astrophys. J. 201, 467
  203. Walborn, N. R., B. M. Lasker, V. G. Taidler, and Y. H. Chu, 1987, Astrophys. J. 321, L41
  204. Wallace, S. J., 1987, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 37, 267
  205. Weaver, T. A., 1980, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 366, 335
  206. Weinberg, S., 1967, Phys. Rev. Lett. 19, 1264
  207. Whelan, J. C., and I. Iben, 1973, Astrophys. J. 186, 1007
  208. Wilson, J. R., 1971, Astrophys. J. 163, 209
  209. Wilson, J. R., 1985, in Numerical Astrophysics, edited by J. M. Centrella, J. M. LeBlanc, and R. L. Bowers (Jones & Bartlett, Boston), p. 422
  210. Wilson, J. R., and R. Mayle, 1988, in Proceedings of the Fifth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, edited by D. G. Blair and M. J. Buckingham (World Scientific, Singapore)
  211. Wilson, J. R., and R. Mayle, 1989, Conference on Nuclear Equation of State, Peniscola, Spain (unpublished)
  212. Woosley, S. E., 1988, Astrophys. J. 330, 218
  213. Woosley, S. E., P. A. Pinto, and L. Ensman, 1988, Astrophys. J. 324, 466
  214. Woosley, S. E., P. A. Pinto, and T. A. Weaver, 1989, in Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of Australia
  215. Woosley, S. E., and T. A. Weaver, 1986, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 24, 205
  216. Woosley, S. E., and T. A. Weaver, 1988, Phys. Rep. 163, 79
  217. Yahil, A., 1983, Astrophys. J. 265, 1047
  218. Yahil, A., 1985, Astrophys. J. 288, 644
  219. Yahil, A., and J. M. Lattimer, 1982, in Supernovae: A Survey of Current Research, edited by M. J. Rees and R. S. Stoneham (Reidel, Dordrecht), p. 53

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 62, 801– Published 1 October, 1990

    © 1990 American Physical Society

    Sign In to Your Journals Account

    Filter

    Filter

    Article Lookup

    Enter a citation