- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Reviews of Modern Physics

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

Physics of climate

José P. Peixóto and Abraham H. Oort

José P. Peixóto

  • Professor of Physics, Geophysical Institute, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

Abraham H. Oort

  • Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory/NOAA, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08542

PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 56, 365 – Published 1 July, 1984

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.56.365

Abstract

A review of our present understanding of the global climate system, consisting of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, and their complex interactions and feedbacks is given from the point of view of a physicist. This understanding is based both on real observations and on the results from numerical simulations. The main emphasis in this review is on the atmosphere and oceans. First, balance equations describing the large-scale climate and its evolution in time are derived from the basic thermohydrodynamic laws of classical physics. The observed atmosphere-ocean system is then described by showing how the balances of radiation, mass, angular momentum, water, and energy are maintained during present climatic conditions. Next, a hierarchy of mathematical models that successfully simulate various aspects of the climate is discussed, and examples are given of how three-dimensional general circulation models are being used to increase our understanding of the global climate "machine." Finally, the possible impact of human activities on climate is discussed, with main emphasis on likely future heating due to the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

View figure in article

References (120)

  1. Adem, J., 1964, "On the physical basis for the numerical prediction of monthly and seasonal temperatures in the troposphereocean-continent system," Mon. Weather Rev. 92, 91
  2. Arrhenius, S., 1896, "On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground," Philos. Mag. 41, 236
  3. Berlage, H. P., 1966, The Southern Oscillation and World Weather, Royal Netherlands Met. Inst., Communications and Transactions No. 88
  4. Bryan, K., 1969, "Climate and the ocean circulation: 3. The ocean model," Mon. Weather Rev. 97, 806
  5. Bryan, K., and M. D. Cox, 1967, "A numerical investigation of the oceanic general circulation," Tellus 19, 54
  6. Bryan, K., and L. J. Lewis, 1979, "A water mass model of the world ocean," J. Geophys. Res. 84, 2503
  7. Bryson, R. A., 1972, "Climate modification by air pollution," in The Environmental Future, edited by N. Polunin (MacMillan, London), p. 133
  8. Budyko, M. I., N. A. Stepanova1956, Atlas eplovovo balansa zemnovo zhara [The Heat Balance of the Earth's Surface] (Gidrometeorologicheshoe Izdatel'stvo, Leningrad) [translated from Russian by , Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C. (1958)]
  9. Budyko, M. I., 1969, "The effect of solar variation on the climate of the earth," Tellus 21, 611
  10. Callender, G. S., 1938, "The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its influence on temperature," Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 64, 223
  11. Campbell, G. G., and T. H. Vonder Haar, 1980, Climatology of radiation budget measurements from satellites, Atmos. Sci. Paper No. 323, Dept. Atmos. Sci., Colorado State University, Fort Collins
  12. Charney, J. G., 1947, "The dynamics of long waves in a baroclinic westerly current," J. Meteorol. 4, 135
  13. Charney, J. G., 1948, "On the scale of atmospheric motions," Geofys. Publ. 17, 1
  14. Courant, R., K. O. Friedrichs, and H. Lewy, 1928, "Ueber die partiellen Differenzgleichungen der mathematischen Physik," Math. Ann. 100, 32
  15. Crowley, T. J., 1983, "The geological record of climatic change," Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 21, 828
  16. Dobson, F. W., F. P. Bretherton, D. M. Burridge, J. Crease, E. B. Kraus, and T. H. Vonder Haar, 1982, The "CAGE" Experiment: A Feasibility Study, World Climate Program 22, World Meteor. Org., Geneva
  17. Dyson, F. J., 1977, "Can we control the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?" Energy 2, 287
  18. Eady, E. T., 1949, "Long waves and cyclone waves," Tellus 1, 33
  19. Gates, W. L., 1976, "The numerical simulation of ice-age climate with a global general circulation model," J. Atmos. Sci. 33, 1844
  20. Green, J. S. A., 1970, "Transfer properties of the large-scale eddies and the general circulation of the atmosphere," Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 96, 157
  21. Hadley, G., 1735, "Concerning the cause of the general trade winds," Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 39, 58 [Reprinted Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 51, (1910)]
  22. Hall, M. M., and H. L. Bryden, 1981, "Direct estimates and mechanisms of ocean heat transport," Deep-Sea Res. 29, 339
  23. Hansen, J., D. Johnson, A. Lacis, S. Lebedeff, P. Lee, D. Rind, and G. Russell, 1981, "Climate impact of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide," Science 213, 957
  24. Hasselmann, K., 1976, "Stochastic climate models, Part 1. Theory," Tellus 28, 473
  25. Hasselmann, K., 1977, "The dynamical coupling between the atmosphere and the ocean," in The influence of the ocean on climate, World Meteorological Organization, No. 472, Report on Marine Science Affairs No. 11, p. 31
  26. Hasselmann, K., 1978, "On the problem of multiple time scales in climate modeling," in Man's Impact on Climate, Proceedings of an International Conference, Berlin, June 14-16, 1978, p. 43
  27. Hastenrath, S., 1982, "On meridional heat transports in the world ocean," J. Phys. Ocean. 12, 922
  28. Hatsopoulos, G., and J. H. Keenan, 1965, Principles of General Thermodynamics (Wiley, New York)
  29. Held, I. M., 1982, "Stationary and quasi-stationary eddies in the extratropical troposphere: Theory," in Large-Scale Dynamical Processes in the Atmosphere, edited by B. J. Hoskins and R. P. Pearce (Academic, New York), p. 127
  30. Hunt, B. G., 1979, "The influence of the earth's rotation rate on the general circulation of the atmosphere," J. Atmos. Sci. 36, 1392
  31. Hunt, B. G.Huschke, R. E., 1959, Ed., Glossary of Meteorology (American Meterological Society, Boston)
  32. Imbrie, J., and K. P. Imbrie, 1979, Ice Ages—Solving the Mystery (Enslow Publishers, Hillside, New Jersey)
  33. Jaeger, L., 1976, "Monatskarten des Niederschlags für die ganze Erde" ["Monthly precipitation maps for the entire earth"], Ber. Dtsch. Wetterdienstes 18, No. 139
  34. Jones, P. D., T. M. L. Wigley, and P. M. Kelly, 1982, "Variations in surface air temperatures: Part 1. Northern hemisphere, 1881-1980," Mon. Weather Rev. 110, 59
  35. Kasahara, A., and W. M. Washington, 1967, "NCAR global general circulation model of the atmosphere," Mon. Weather Rev. 95, 389
  36. Keenan, J. H., 1941, Thermodynamics (Wiley, New York reprinted in 1977 by MIT Press)
  37. Köppen, W., 1931, Grundriss der Klimakunde [The Climates of the Earth] (Walter de Gruyter, Berlin)
  38. Lambeck, K., 1981, The Earth's Variable Rotation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England)
  39. Lau, N. C., and J. M. Wallace, 1979, "On the distribution of horizontal transports by transient eddies in the Northern Hemisphere wintertime circulation," J. Atmos. Sci. 36, 1844
  40. Leith, C. E., 1965, "Numerical simulation of the earth's atmosphere," Methods Comput. Phys. 4, 1
  41. Leith, C. E., 1978, "Predictability of climate," Nature 276, 352
  42. Levitus, S., 1982, Climatological Atlas of the World Ocean, NOAA Professional Paper No. 13 (U.S. GPO, Washington, D.C.)
  43. Lorenz, E. N., 1955, "Available potential energy and the maintenance of the general circulation," Tellus 7, 157
  44. Lorenz, E. N., 1960, "Maximum simplification of the dynamic equations," Tellus 12, 243
  45. Lorenz, E. N., 1963, "Deterministic nonperiodic flow," J. Atmos. Sci. 20, 130
  46. Lorenz, E. N., 1967, The Nature and Theory of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere, WMO Publication No. 218, T.P. 115 (World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland)
  47. Lorenz, E. N., 1968, "Climatic determinism," Meteorol. Monogr. 8, No. 30, 1
  48. Lorenz, E. N., 1969, "The predictability of a flow which possesses many scales of motion," Tellus 21, 289
  49. Manabe, S., 1969, "Climate and the ocean circulation: 2. The atmospheric circulation and the effect of heat transfer by ocean currents," Mon. Weather Rev. 97, 775
  50. Manabe, S., 1983, "Carbon dioxide and climatic change," in Theory of Climate, edited by B. Saltzman, Adv. Geophys. (Academic, New York), Vol. 25, p. 39
  51. Manabe, S., K. Bryan, and M. J. Spelman, 1979, "A global ocean-atmosphere climate model with seasonal variation for future studies of climate sensitivity," Dynamics Atmos. Oceans 3, 393
  52. Manabe, S., and D. G. Hahn, 1977, "Simulation of the tropical climate of an ice age," J. Geophys. Res. 82, 3889
  53. Manabe, S., and J. L. Holloway, Jr., 1975, "The seasonal variation of the hydrological cycle as simulated by a global model of the atmosphere," J. Geophys. Res. 80, 1617
  54. Manabe, S., J. Smagorinsky, J. L. Holloway, and H. M. Stone, 1970, "Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrological cycle. 3. Effects of increased horizontal computational resolution," Mon. Weather Rev. 98, 175
  55. Manabe, S., J. Smagorinsky, and R. F. Strickler, 1965, "Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrological cycle," Mon. Weather Rev. 93, 769
  56. Manabe, S., and R. F. Strickler, 1964, "Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a convective adjustment," J. Atmos. Sci. 21, 361
  57. Manabe, S., and T. Terpstra, 1974, "The effects of mountains on the general circulation of the atmosphere as identified by numerical experiments," J. Atmos. Sci. 31, 3
  58. Manabe, S., and R. T. Wetherald, 1967, "Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a given distribution of relative humidity," J. Atmos. Sci. 24, 241
  59. Manabe, S., and R. T. Wetherald, 1975, "The effects of doubling the CO2 concentration on the climate of a general circulation model," J. Atmos. Sci. 32, 3
  60. Margules, M., C. Abbe1903, Über die Energie der Stürme, Jahresber. Zentralanst. Meteor. 40, 1-26 The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere [translated by (1910), Smithson. Misc. Collect. 51, 553]
  61. Milankovitch, M., 1941, Kanon der Erdbestrahlung und seine Anwendung am Eiszeit [History of radiation on the earth and its use for the problem of the ice ages]. K. Serb. Akad. Beogr. Spec. Publ. 132 (translated by the Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem, 1969)
  62. Mintz, Y., 1965, "Very long-term global integration of the primitive equations of atmospheric motion (an experiment in climate simulation)," W. M. O. Tech. Notes, No. 66, 119 Am. Met. Soc. Meteorol. Monogr. 8, No. 30, 20 (1968)
  63. Mitchell, J. M., 1976, "An overview of climatic variability and its causal mechanisms," Quat. Res. 6, 481
  64. Miyakoda, K., T. Gordon, R. Caverly, W. Stern, and J. Sirutis, 1983, "Simulation of a blocking event in January 1977," Mon. Weather Rev. 11, 846
  65. Miyakoda, K., G. D. Hembree, R. F. Strickler, and I. Shulman, 1972, "Cumulative results of extended forecast experiments. I. Model performance for winter cases," Mon. Weather Rev. 100, 836
  66. Monin, A. S., 1972, Weather forecasting as a problem in physics (MIT, Cambridge, Mass.)
  67. Namias, J., J. Namias1983, Short Period Climatic Variations, Collected Works of 1975 through 1982 (University of California, San Diego), Vol. III
  68. National Academy of Sciences, 1975, Understanding Climatic Change: A Program for Action (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.)
  69. National Academy of Sciences, Climate Research Board, 1979, Carbon dioxide and climate: a scientific assessment (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.)
  70. National Academy of Sciences, Climate Research Board, 1982, Carbon dioxide and climate: a second assessment (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.)
  71. Newton, C. W., 1971, "Mountain torques in the global angular momentum balance," J. Atmos. Sci. 28, 623
  72. North, G. R., R. F. Cahalan, and J. A. Coakley, Jr., 1981, "Energy-balance climate models," Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 19, 91
  73. Oort, A. H., 1978, "Adequacy of the rawinsonde network for global circulation studies tested through numerical model output," Mon. Weather Rev. 106, 174
  74. Oort, A. H., 1983, Global Atmospheric Circulation Statistics, 1958-1973, NOAA Professional Paper No. 14 (U.S. GPO, Washington, D.C.)
  75. Oort, A. H., and J. P. Peixóto, 1983, "Global angular momentum and energy balance requirements from observations," in Theory of Climate, edited by B. Saltzman, Adv. Geophys. (Academic, New York), Vol. 25. p. 355
  76. Oort, A. H., and E. M. Rasmusson, 1971, Atmospheric Circulation Statistics, NOAA Professional Paper 5 (U.S. GPO, Washington, D.C)
  77. Oort, A. H., and T. H. Vonder Haar, 1976, "On the observed annual cycle in the ocean-atmosphere heat balance over the Northern Hemisphere," J. Phys. Ocean 6, 781
  78. Pan, Y. H., and A. H. Oort, 1983, "Global climate variations connected with sea surface temperature anomalies in the equatorial Pacific Ocean for the 1963-1973 period," Mon. Weather Rev. 111, 1244
  79. Peixóto, J. P., 1977, "Dinámica do Clima" ["Dynamics of climate"], Mem. Acad. Ciênc. Lisboa, Cl. Ciênc. 22, 195
  80. Peixóto, J. P., and A. H. Oort, 1974, "The annual distribution of atmospheric energy on a planetary scale," J. Geophys. Res. 79, 2149
  81. Peixóto, J. P., and A. H. Oort, 1983, The atmospheric branch of the hydrological cycle and climate, in Variations of the global water budget (Reidel, London), p. 5
  82. Philander, G. S., 1983, "El Niño Southern Oscillation phenomena," Nature 302, 295
  83. Phillips, N. A., 1956, "The general circulation of the atmosphere: A numerical experiment," Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 82, 123
  84. Ramanathan, V., and J. A. Coakley, Jr., 1978, "Climate modeling through radiative-convective models," Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 16, 465
  85. Rasmusson, E. M., and T. H. Carpenter, 1982, "Variations in tropical sea surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillation/El Niño," Mon. Weather Rev. 110, 354
  86. Rasmusson, E. M., and J. M. Wallace, 1983, "Meteorological aspects of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation," Science 222, 1195
  87. Richtmeyer, R. D., and K. W. Morton, 1967, Difference Methods for Initial-Value Problems, 2nd ed. (Interscience, New York)
  88. Rosen, R. D., and D. A. Salstein, 1983, "Variations in atmospheric angular momentum on global and regional scales, and the length of day," J. Geophys. Res. 88, 5451
  89. Saltzman, B., 1968, "Steady state solutions for axially-symmetric climatic variables," Pure Appl. Geophys. 69, 237
  90. Saltzman, B., 1977, "Global mass and energy requirements for glacial oscillations and their implications for mean ocean temperature oscillations," Tellus 29, 205
  91. Saltzman, B., 1978, "A survey of statistical-dynamical models of the terrestrial climate," Adv. Geophys. 20, 183
  92. Saltzman, B., and A. D. Vernekar, 1975, "A solution for the Northern Hemisphere climatic zonation during a glacial maximum," Quat. Res. 5, 307
  93. Schneider, S. H., and R. E. Dickinson, 1974, "Climate modeling," Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 12, 447
  94. Sellers, W. D., 1969, "A global climate model based on the energy balance of the earth-atmosphere system," J. Appl. Met. 8, 396
  95. Shukla, J., and Y. Mintz, 1982, "Influence of land-surface evapotranspiration on the earth's climate," Science 215, 1498
  96. Smagorinsky, J., 1963, "General circulation experiments with the primitive equations. 1. The basic experiment," Mon. Weather Rev. 91, 99
  97. Smagorinsky, J., 1970, "Numerical simulation of the global atmosphere," in The Global Circulation of the Atmosphere, edited by G. A. Corby (Royal Meteorological Society, London), p. 24
  98. Smagorinsky, J., 1974, "Global atmospheric modeling and the numerical simulation of climate," in Weather and Climate Modification, edited by W. N. Hess (Wiley, New York), p. 633
  99. Smagorinsky, J., 1983, "The beginnings of numerical weather prediction and general circulation modeling: Early recollections," in Theory of Climate, edited by B. Saltzman, Adv. Geophys. (Academic, New York), Vol. 25, p. 3
  100. Smagorinsky, J., S. Manabe, and J. L. Holloway, 1965, "Numerical results from a nine-level general circulation model of the atmosphere," Mon. Weather Rev. 93, 727
  101. Smith, E. A., T. H. Vonder Haar, J. R. Hickey, and R. Maschhoff, 1983, "The nature of the short-period fluctuations in solar irradiance received by the earth," Climatic Change 5, 211
  102. Starr, V. P., 1948, "An essay on the general circulation of the earth's atmosphere," J. Meteorol. 5, 39
  103. Starr, V. P., 1951, "Applications of Energy Principles to the General Circulation" in Compendium of Meteorology (American Meteorological Society, Boston, Mass.), p. 568
  104. Starr, V. P., 1953, "Note concerning the nature of the large-scale eddies in the atmosphere," Tellus 5, 494
  105. Starr, V. P., 1968, Physics of Negative Viscosity Phenomena (McGraw-Hill, New York)
  106. Starr, V. P., and J. P. Peixóto, 1958, "On the global balance of water vapor and the hydrology of deserts," Tellus 10, 189
  107. Stommel, H., 1960, The Gulf Stream: A physical and dynamical description (University of California, Berkeley)
  108. Stone, P. H., 1974, "The meridional variation of the eddy heat fluxes by baroclinic waves and their parameterization," J. Atmos. Sci. 31, 444
  109. Sutera, A., 1981, "On stochastic perturbation and long-term climate behaviour," Q. J. R. Meterol. Soc. 107, 137
  110. Sverdrup, H. U., M. W. Johnson, and R. H. Fleming, 1962, The Oceans; their physics, chemistry and general biology, 11th printing (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs)
  111. Trenberth, K. E., 1981, "Seasonal variations in global sea level pressure and the total mass of the atmosphere," J. Geophys. Res. 86, 5238
  112. van Loon, H., and J. C. Rogers, 1978, "The seasaw in winter temperature between Greenland and Northern Europe. Part I: General description," Mon. Weather Rev. 106, 296
  113. Vinnichenko, N. K., 1970, "The kinetic energy spectrum in the free atmosphere—1 second to 5 years," Tellus 22, 158
  114. von Neuman, J., 1960, "Some remarks on the problem of forecasting climatic fluctuations," in Dynamics of Climate, edited by R. L. Pfeffer (Pergamon, New York), p. 9
  115. Walker, G. T., and E. W. Bliss, 1932, "World Weather V," Mem. R. Meteorol. Soc. 4, 53
  116. Walker, G. T., and E. W. Bliss, 1937, "World Weather VI," Mem. R. Meteorol. Soc. 4, 119
  117. Wallace, J. M., and D. S. Gutzler, 1981, "Teleconnections in the geopotential height field during the Northern Hemisphere winter," Mon. Weather Rev. 109, 784
  118. Wetherald, R. T., and S. Manabe, 1975, "The effects of changing the solar constant on the climate of a general circulation model," J. Atmos. Sci. 32, 2044
  119. Williams, G. P., and J. L. Holloway, Jr., 1982, "The range and unity of planetary circulations," Nature 297, 295
  120. Wyrtki, K., 1982, "The Southern Oscillation, ocean-atmosphere interaction and El Niño," Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 16, 3

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 56, 365– Published 1 July, 1984

    © 1984 American Physical Society

    Sign In to Your Journals Account

    Filter

    Filter

    Article Lookup

    Enter a citation