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  • Open Access

Unified Framework for Osmotic Energy Conversion

Oren Lavi†, Ramadan Abu-Rjal†, and Yoav Green*

  • *Contact author: yoavgreen@bgu.ac.il
  • †These authors contributed equally to this work.
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PRX Energy 5, 033017 – Published 16 September, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/xnd6-226l

Abstract

Osmotic energy systems employ charged nanoporous membranes and nanochannels to convert salinity gradients into electrical power, offering a promising route to harvest one of Earth’s most abundant yet underexploited renewable resources—the oceans—and providing reliable, carbon-free electricity. However, to date, no known self-consistent theoretical model can accurately predict the electrical response of realistic charge-selective systems. Thus, empirical and phenomenological models are used to increase the performance while attributing the increase to various mechanisms, which are mostly incorrect and incomplete. This leads to a costly empirical trial-and-error optimization process, which typically yields only incremental improvements. Here, we provide a self-consistent theoretical model for the current-voltage (I−V) response, verified by nonapproximated numerical simulations, that establishes a detailed framework for osmotic energy conversion in realistic systems comprising a charge-selective membrane and the often-neglected larger bulk reservoirs. Our model delineates the effects of the surface charges, the bulk concentration ratio, and the often-neglected effects of the bulk reservoirs. The model provides analytical expressions for all the major transport characteristics at zero current (I=0), including the Ohmic resistance, ROhmic, the voltage at zero current, VI=0, and the transport number, τ, which is a metric for the selectivity of the system. The I=0 insights are carried over to the results at the energy harvesting limit of zero voltage (V=0), allowing a straightforward analysis. Two of our key results are unexpected. First, the concentration at which the harvestable electrical power is maximal is not the concentration at which the harvestable electrical current is maximal. Second, overlooking the effects of the bulk reservoirs leads to overestimations of the harvestable power by several orders of magnitude. Our proposed framework lays the theoretical foundation for a new generation of sustainable nanofluidic energy systems relevant to addressing global energy and water challenges.

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Abundant, carbon-free electricity can be harvested when salt water mixes with freshwater. This work explores the behavior of realistic osmotic energy systems that utilize the well-established process of reverse-electrodialysis. Here, the authors use a combination of theoretical and numerical tools to elucidate the underlying physics of such systems and to create a new framework that bridges the gap between idealized theory and real devices. In particular, they delineate how the bulk concentrations, the surface charge, and the geometry determine the transport characteristics of the system. They demonstrate that assuming a negligible or very substantial surface charge yields oversimplified results. Additionally, if one neglects the electrical resistance of the reservoirs, the ideal model over-predicts the harvestable energy by more than two orders of magnitude. The proposed framework lays a theoretical foundation that can be used to create and optimize a new generation of sustainable osmotic energy systems.

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PRX Energy 5, 033017– Published 16 September, 2026
  • Received 28 December 2025
  • Revised 28 July 2026
  • Accepted 13 August 2026
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