- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
Access Provided by Xinjiang University

Physical Review D

Export citation

Export citation

Choose format for download:

Download Citation
  • Access by Xinjiang University

Parameter estimation horizon of core-collapse supernovae with current and next-generation gravitational-wave detectors

A. Akhmetali1,2, Y. S. Abylkairov1,3,*, D. Orel4, S. Nunes5, A. Sakan2,1, A. Zhunuskanov2, M. Zaidyn2, N. Ussipov2,1, J. A. Font6,7 et al.

E. Abdikamalov1,8

  • *Contact author: sultan.abylkairov@nu.edu.kz
PDF

Phys. Rev. D 114, 043035 – Published 14 August, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/zxnn-chs6

Abstract

Core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) are powerful sources of gravitational waves (GWs). These signals propagate essentially unobstructed, providing a unique probe of the supernova central engine. In this work, we investigate parameter estimation from the bounce and early ring-down GW signal of rotating CCSNe using machine learning. We infer the peak frequency and peak amplitude of the signal as well as the rotation of the core. We extend previous studies in several directions. We consider a range of progenitor models and nuclear equations of state, and we assess the impact of key physical uncertainties, including bounce time uncertainty and source inclination. We incorporate both current detector noise and the projected sensitivities of next-generation observatories. We find that uncertainty in the bounce time does not significantly affect parameter estimation when the analysis is performed in the Fourier domain. In contrast, orientations when the rotation axis is near the line of sight substantially degrade performance. For optimal orientations, next-generation detectors can constrain rotation out to distances exceeding 100 kpc.

View figure in article

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

Article Text

References (137)

  1. A. G. Abac, I. Abouelfettouh, F. Acernese, and K. e. a. Ackley (The LIGO Scientific, the Virgo, the KAGRA Collaborations), GWTC-4.0: Updating the gravitational-wave transient catalog with observations from the first part of the fourth LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA observing run, Astrophys. J. Lett. 1004, L22 (2026).
  2. A. Mezzacappa and M. Zanolin, Gravitational waves from neutrino-driven core collapse supernovae: Predictions, detection, and parameter estimation, arXiv:2401.11635.
  3. D. Vartanyan, A. Burrows, T. Wang, M. S. B. Coleman, and C. J. White, Gravitational-wave signature of core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D 107, 103015 (2023).
  4. B. Müller, Core-Collapse supernovae and their gravitational wave signals: The status of theory and modeling, arXiv:2603.24243.
  5. B. P. Abbott, R. Abbott, T. D. Abbott, S. Abraham, and F. Acernese (LIGO Scientific, Virgo, ASAS-SN, and DLT40 Collaborations), Optically targeted search for gravitational waves emitted by core-collapse supernovae during the first and second observing runs of Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo, Phys. Rev. D 101, 084002 (2020).
  6. M. J. Szczepańczyk et al., Optically targeted search for gravitational waves emitted by core-collapse supernovae during the third observing run of Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo, Phys. Rev. D 110, 042007 (2024).
  7. V. Srivastava, S. Ballmer, D. A. Brown, C. Afle, A. Burrows, D. Radice, and D. Vartanyan, Detection prospects of core-collapse supernovae with supernova-optimized third-generation gravitational-wave detectors, Phys. Rev. D 100, 043026 (2019).
  8. H.-T. Janka, T. Melson, and A. Summa, Physics of core-collapse supernovae in three dimensions: A sneak preview, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 66, 341 (2016).
  9. T. Ertl, H.-T. Janka, S. E. Woosley, T. Sukhbold, and M. Ugliano, A two-parameter criterion for classifying the explodability of massive stars by the neutrino-driven mechanism, Astrophys. J. 818, 124 (2016).
  10. L. Boccioli, D. Vartanyan, E. P. O’Connor, and D. Kasen, Neutrino heating in 1D, 2D, and 3D core-collapse supernovae: characterizing the explosion of high-compactness stars, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 540, 3885 (2025).
  11. H.-T. Janka, Conditions for shock revival by neutrino heating in core-collapse supernovae, Astron. Astrophys. 368, 527 (2001).
  12. A. Burrows, L. Dessart, E. Livne, C. D. Ott, and J. Murphy, Simulations of magnetically driven supernova and hypernova explosions in the context of rapid rotation, Astrophys. J. 664, 416 (2007).
  13. A. Burrows, Colloquium: Perspectives on core-collapse supernova theory, Rev. Mod. Phys. 85, 245 (2013).
  14. E. O’Connor and C. D. Ott, Black hole formation in failing Core-Collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 730, 70 (2011).
  15. K. Nakamura, S. Horiuchi, M. Tanaka, K. Hayama, T. Takiwaki, and K. Kotake, Multimessenger signals of long-term core-collapse supernova simulations: Synergetic observation strategies, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 461, 3296 (2016).
  16. J. R. Westernacher-Schneider, E. O’Connor, E. O’Sullivan, I. Tamborra, M.-R. Wu, S. M. Couch, and F. Malmenbeck, Multimessenger asteroseismology of core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D 100, 123009 (2019).
  17. B. Müller, H.-T. Janka, and A. Marek, A new Multi-dimensional general relativistic neutrino hydrodynamics code of core-collapse supernovae. III. Gravitational wave signals from supernova explosion models, Astrophys. J. 766, 43 (2013).
  18. V. Morozova, D. Radice, A. Burrows, and D. Vartanyan, The gravitational wave signal from core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 861, 10 (2018).
  19. A. Torres-Forné, P. Cerdá-Durán, M. Obergaulinger, B. Müller, and J. A. Font, Universal relations for gravitational-wave asteroseismology of protoneutron stars, Phys. Rev. Lett. 123, 051102 (2019).
  20. J. Powell and B. Müller, Inferring astrophysical parameters of core-collapse supernovae from their gravitational-wave emission, Phys. Rev. D 105, 063018 (2022).
  21. A. Burrows and J. Goshy, A theory of supernova explosions, Astrophys. J. Lett. 416, L75 (1993).
  22. B. Müller, H.-T. Janka, and A. Heger, New two-dimensional models of supernova explosions by the neutrino-heating mechanism: Evidence for different instability regimes in collapsing stellar cores, Astrophys. J. 761, 72 (2012).
  23. D. Radice, C. D. Ott, E. Abdikamalov, S. M. Couch, R. Haas, and E. Schnetter, Neutrino-driven convection in core-collapse supernovae: High-resolution simulations, Astrophys. J. 820, 76 (2016).
  24. J. W. Murphy, C. D. Ott, and A. Burrows, A model for gravitational wave emission from neutrino-driven core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 707, 1173 (2009).
  25. C. D. Ott, E. Abdikamalov, P. Mösta, R. Haas, S. Drasco, E. P. O’Connor, C. Reisswig, C. A. Meakin, and E. Schnetter, General-relativistic simulations of three-dimensional core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 768, 115 (2013).
  26. K. N. Yakunin, A. Mezzacappa, P. Marronetti, S. Yoshida, S. W. Bruenn, W. R. Hix, E. J. Lentz, O. E. Bronson Messer, J. A. Harris, E. Endeve, J. M. Blondin, and E. J. Lingerfelt, Gravitational wave signatures of ab initio two-dimensional core collapse supernova explosion models for 12–25M⊙ stars, Phys. Rev. D 92, 084040 (2015).
  27. H. Andresen, B. Müller, E. Müller, and H. T. Janka, Gravitational wave signals from 3D neutrino hydrodynamics simulations of core-collapse supernovae, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 468, 2032 (2017).
  28. A. Mezzacappa, P. Marronetti, R. E. Landfield, E. J. Lentz, R. D. Murphy, W. Raphael Hix, J. A. Harris, S. W. Bruenn, J. M. Blondin, O. E. Bronson Messer, J. Casanova, and L. L. Kronzer, Core collapse supernova gravitational wave emission for progenitors of 9.6, 15, and 25M⊙, Phys. Rev. D 107, 043008 (2023).
  29. H. Sotani, B. Müller, and T. Takiwaki, Universality in supernova gravitational waves with protoneutron star properties, Phys. Rev. D 109, 123021 (2024).
  30. J. Ehring, S. Abbar, H.-T. Janka, G. Raffelt, K. Nakamura, and K. Kotake, Gravitational-wave signatures of nonstandard neutrino properties in collapsing stellar cores, Phys. Rev. Lett. 136, 021201 (2026).
  31. A. Lella, G. Lucente, D. Kresse, R. Glas, H.-T. Janka, and A. Mirizzi, Gravitational-wave signals for supernova explosions of three-dimensional progenitors, Phys. Rev. D 113, 083034 (2026).
  32. S. M. Couch and C. D. Ott, Revival of the stalled Core-collapse supernova shock triggered by precollapse asphericity in the progenitor star, Astrophys. J. Lett. 778, L7 (2013).
  33. S. M. Couch, E. Chatzopoulos, W. D. Arnett, and F. X. Timmes, The three-dimensional evolution to core collapse of a massive star, Astrophys. J. Lett. 808, L21 (2015).
  34. B. Müller, T. Melson, A. Heger, and H.-T. Janka, Supernova simulations from a 3D progenitor model—impact of perturbations and evolution of explosion properties, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 472, 491 (2017).
  35. H. Nagakura, K. Takahashi, and Y. Yamamoto, On the importance of progenitor asymmetry to shock revival in core-collapse supernovae, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 483, 208 (2019).
  36. R. Kazeroni and E. Abdikamalov, The impact of progenitor asymmetries on the neutrino-driven convection in core-collapse supernovae, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 494, 5360 (2020).
  37. D. Vartanyan, M. S. B. Coleman, and A. Burrows, The collapse and three-dimensional explosion of three-dimensional massive-star supernova progenitor models, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 510, 4689 (2022).
  38. Y. Telman, E. Abdikamalov, and T. Foglizzo, Convective vortices in collapsing stars, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 535, 1388 (2024).
  39. J. M. Blondin, A. Mezzacappa, and C. DeMarino, Stability of standing accretion shocks, with an eye toward core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 584, 971 (2003).
  40. T. Foglizzo, L. Scheck, and H. T. Janka, Neutrino-driven convection versus advection in core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 652, 1436 (2006).
  41. T. Kuroda, K. Kotake, and T. Takiwaki, A new gravitational-wave signature from standing accretion shock instability in supernovae, Astrophys. J. Lett. 829, L14 (2016).
  42. T. Kuroda, K. Kotake, K. Hayama, and T. Takiwaki, Correlated signatures of gravitational-wave and neutrino emission in Three-dimensional general-relativistic core-collapse supernova simulations, Astrophys. J. 851, 62 (2017).
  43. A. C. Buellet, T. Foglizzo, J. Guilet, and E. Abdikamalov, Effect of stellar rotation on the development of postshock instabilities during core-collapse supernovae, Astron. Astrophys. 674, A205 (2023).
  44. B. Müller and H.-T. Janka, Non-radial instabilities and progenitor asphericities in core-collapse supernovae, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 448, 2141 (2015).
  45. S. W. Bruenn, E. J. Lentz, W. R. Hix, A. Mezzacappa, J. A. Harris, O. E. B. Messer, E. Endeve, J. M. Blondin, M. A. Chertkow, E. J. Lingerfelt, P. Marronetti, and K. N. Yakunin, The development of explosions in axisymmetric ab initio core-collapse supernova simulations of 12-25 M stars, Astrophys. J. 818, 123 (2016).
  46. A. Heger, S. E. Woosley, and H. C. Spruit, Presupernova evolution of differentially rotating massive stars including magnetic fields, Astrophys. J. 626, 350 (2005).
  47. S. E. Woosley and A. Heger, The progenitor stars of gamma-ray bursts, Astrophys. J. 637, 914 (2006).
  48. C. D. Ott, E. Abdikamalov, E. O’Connor, C. Reisswig, R. Haas, P. Kalmus, S. Drasco, A. Burrows, and E. Schnetter, Correlated gravitational wave and neutrino signals from general-relativistic rapidly rotating iron core collapse, Phys. Rev. D 86, 024026 (2012).
  49. J. Fuller, H. Klion, E. Abdikamalov, and C. D. Ott, Supernova seismology: Gravitational wave signatures of rapidly rotating core collapse, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 450, 414 (2015).
  50. S. Scheidegger, T. Fischer, S. C. Whitehouse, and M. Liebendörfer, Gravitational waves from 3D MHD core collapse simulations, Astron. Astrophys. 490, 231 (2008).
  51. S. Shibagaki, T. Kuroda, K. Kotake, and T. Takiwaki, A new gravitational-wave signature of low-T/|W| instability in rapidly rotating stellar core collapse, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 493, L138 (2020).
  52. K.-C. Pan, M. Liebendörfer, S. M. Couch, and F.-K. Thielemann, Stellar mass black hole formation and multimessenger signals from Three-dimensional rotating core-collapse supernova simulations, Astrophys. J. 914, 140 (2021).
  53. E. Mueller and H. T. Janka, Gravitational radiation from convective instabilities in type II supernova explosions, Astron. Astrophys. 317, 140 (1997), https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997A&A...317..140M.
  54. T. Takiwaki and K. Kotake, Anisotropic emission of neutrino and gravitational-wave signals from rapidly rotating core-collapse supernovae, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 475, L91 (2018).
  55. D. Vartanyan and A. Burrows, Gravitational waves from neutrino emission asymmetries in core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 901, 108 (2020).
  56. L. Choi, A. Burrows, and D. Vartanyan, Gravitational-wave and gravitational-wave memory signatures of core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 975, 12 (2024).
  57. D. Radice, V. Morozova, A. Burrows, D. Vartanyan, and H. Nagakura, Characterizing the gravitational wave signal from core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. Lett. 876, L9 (2019).
  58. O. Birnholtz and T. Piran, Gravitational wave memory from gamma ray bursts’ jets, Phys. Rev. D 87, 123007 (2013).
  59. N. Soker, Predicting gravitational waves from jittering-jets-driven core collapse supernovae, Res. Astron. Astrophys. 23, 121001 (2023).
  60. M. Pais, T. Piran, and E. Nakar, The velocity distribution of outflows driven by choked jets in stellar envelopes, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 519, 1941 (2023).
  61. P. Mösta, S. Richers, C. D. Ott, R. Haas, A. L. Piro, K. Boydstun, E. Abdikamalov, C. Reisswig, and E. Schnetter, Magnetorotational core-collapse supernovae in three dimensions, Astrophys. J. Lett. 785, L29 (2014).
  62. M. Obergaulinger and M. Á. Aloy, Magnetorotational core collapse of possible GRB progenitors—I. Explosion mechanisms, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 492, 4613 (2020).
  63. T. Kuroda, A. Arcones, T. Takiwaki, and K. Kotake, Magnetorotational explosion of a massive star supported by neutrino heating in general relativistic three-dimensional simulations, Astrophys. J. 896, 102 (2020).
  64. M. Cusinato, M. Obergaulinger, M. Á. Aloy, and J. A. Font, Resonant amplification of multimessenger emission in rotating stellar core collapse, Phys. Rev. Res. 8, 013180 (2026).
  65. B. Sykes and B. Müller, Trends in gravitational wave emission in axisymmetric simulations of rotating core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D 113, 103049 (2026).
  66. M. A. Pajkos, M. L. Warren, S. M. Couch, E. P. O’Connor, and K.-C. Pan, Determining the structure of rotating massive stellar cores with gravitational waves, Astrophys. J. 914, 80 (2021).
  67. E. Abdikamalov, G. Pagliaroli, and D. Radice, Gravitational waves from core-collapse supernovae, in Handbook of Gravitational Wave Astronomy, edited by C. Bambi, S. Katsanevas, and K. D. Kokkotas (Springer, Singapore, 2022), p. 21.
  68. A. Casallas-Lagos, J. M. Antelis, C. Moreno, M. Zanolin, A. Mezzacappa, and M. J. Szczepańczyk, Characterizing the temporal evolution of the high-frequency gravitational wave emission for a core collapse supernova with laser interferometric data: A neural network approach, Phys. Rev. D 108, 084027 (2023).
  69. A. Mitra, B. Shukirgaliyev, Y. S. Abylkairov, and E. Abdikamalov, Exploring supernova gravitational waves with machine learning, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 520, 2473 (2023).
  70. J. Logue, C. D. Ott, I. S. Heng, P. Kalmus, and J. H. C. Scargill, Inferring core-collapse supernova physics with gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. D 86, 044023 (2012).
  71. J. Powell, A. Iess, M. Llorens-Monteagudo, M. Obergaulinger, B. Müller, A. Torres-Forné, E. Cuoco, and J. A. Font, Determining the core-collapse supernova explosion mechanism with current and future gravitational-wave observatories, Phys. Rev. D 109, 063019 (2024).
  72. E. Abdikamalov, S. Gossan, A. M. DeMaio, and C. D. Ott, Measuring the angular momentum distribution in core-collapse supernova progenitors with gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. D 90, 044001 (2014).
  73. M. A. Pajkos, S. M. Couch, K.-C. Pan, and E. P. O’Connor, Features of accretion-phase gravitational-wave emission from two-dimensional rotating core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 878, 13 (2019).
  74. M.-A. Bizouard, P. Maturana-Russel, A. Torres-Forné, M. Obergaulinger, P. Cerdá-Durán, N. Christensen, J. A. Font, and R. Meyer, Inference of protoneutron star properties from gravitational-wave data in core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D 103, 063006 (2021).
  75. T. Bruel, M.-A. Bizouard, M. Obergaulinger, P. Maturana-Russel, A. Torres-Forné, P. Cerdá-Durán, N. Christensen, J. A. Font, and R. Meyer, Inference of protoneutron star properties in core-collapse supernovae from a gravitational-wave detector network, Phys. Rev. D 107, 083029 (2023).
  76. P. Cerdá-Durán, N. DeBrye, M. A. Aloy, J. A. Font, and M. Obergaulinger, Gravitational wave signatures in black hole forming core collapse, Astrophys. J. Lett. 779, L18 (2013).
  77. K.-C. Pan, M. Liebendörfer, S. M. Couch, and F.-K. Thielemann, Equation of state dependent dynamics and multi-messenger signals from stellar-mass black hole formation, Astrophys. J. 857, 13 (2018).
  78. S. Shibagaki, T. Kuroda, K. Kotake, and T. Takiwaki, Characteristic time variability of gravitational-wave and neutrino signals from three-dimensional simulations of non-rotating and rapidly rotating stellar core collapse, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 502, 3066 (2021).
  79. A. Burrows, D. Vartanyan, and T. Wang, Black hole formation accompanied by the supernova explosion of a 40M⊙ progenitor star, Astrophys. J. 957, 68 (2023).
  80. J. Powell and B. Müller, Gravitational waves from core-collapse supernovae with no electromagnetic counterparts, Classical Quantum Gravity 42, 215002 (2025).
  81. O. Eggenberger Andersen, E. O’Connor, H. Andresen, A. da Silva Schneider, and S. M. Couch, Black hole supernovae, their equation of state dependence, and ejecta composition, Astrophys. J. 980, 53 (2025).
  82. C. D. Ott, C. Reisswig, E. Schnetter, E. O’Connor, U. Sperhake, F. Löffler, P. Diener, E. Abdikamalov, I. Hawke, and A. Burrows, Dynamics and gravitational wave signature of collapsar formation, Phys. Rev. Lett. 106, 161103 (2011).
  83. T. Kuroda and M. Shibata, Failed supernova simulations beyond black hole formation, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 526, 152 (2023).
  84. S. Richers, C. D. Ott, E. Abdikamalov, E. O’Connor, and C. Sullivan, Equation of state effects on gravitational waves from rotating core collapse, Phys. Rev. D 95, 063019 (2017).
  85. M. C. Edwards, Classifying the equation of state from rotating core collapse gravitational waves with deep learning, Phys. Rev. D 103, 024025 (2021).
  86. Y.-S. Chao, C.-Z. Su, T.-Y. Chen, D.-W. Wang, and K.-C. Pan, Determining the core structure and nuclear equation of state of rotating core-collapse supernovae with gravitational waves by convolutional neural networks, Astrophys. J. 939, 13 (2022).
  87. N. E. Wolfe, C. Fröhlich, J. M. Miller, A. Torres-Forné, and P. Cerdá-Durán, Gravitational wave eigenfrequencies from neutrino-driven core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 954, 161 (2023).
  88. A. Mitra, D. Orel, Y. S. Abylkairov, B. Shukirgaliyev, and E. Abdikamalov, Probing nuclear physics with supernova gravitational waves and machine learning, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 529, 3582 (2024).
  89. Y. S. Abylkairov, M. C. Edwards, A. Ostrikov, Y. Tleukhanov, A. Torres-Forné, P. Cerdá-Durán, J. A. Font, M. J. Szczepańczyk, and E. Abdikamalov, Assessing the distance for probing the nuclear equation of state with supernova gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. D 112, 123056 (2025).
  90. A. Akhmetali, Y. S. Abylkairov, M. Zaidyn, A. Sakan, A. Zhunuskanov, N. Ussipov, J. A. Font, A. Torres-Forné, and E. Abdikamalov, Toward more realistic machine-learning inference of the dense-matter equation of state from supernova gravitational waves, Phys. Rev. D 114, 023053 (2026).
  91. R. D. Murphy, A. Casallas-Lagos, A. Mezzacappa, M. Zanolin, R. E. Landfield, E. J. Lentz, P. Marronetti, J. M. Antelis, and C. Moreno, Dependence of the reconstructed core-collapse supernova gravitational wave high-frequency feature on the nuclear equation of state in real interferometric data, Phys. Rev. D 110, 083006 (2024).
  92. A. Rusakov, A. S. Burrows, T. Wang, and D. Vartanyan, An exploration of the equation of state dependence of core-collapse supernova explosion outcomes and signatures, Astrophys. J. 1003, 40 (2026).
  93. J. Powell and B. Müller, Impact of the nuclear equation of state on the explodability of massive stars, Phys. Rev. D 114, 023003 (2026).
  94. C. D. Ott, H. Dimmelmeier, A. Marek, H. T. Janka, B. Zink, I. Hawke, and E. Schnetter, Rotating collapse of stellar iron cores in general relativity, Classical Quantum Gravity 24, S139 (2007).
  95. Y. S. Abylkairov, M. C. Edwards, D. Orel, A. Mitra, B. Shukirgaliyev, and E. Abdikamalov, Evaluating machine learning models for supernova gravitational wave signal classification, Mach. Learn. 5, 045077 (2024).
  96. M. C. Edwards, R. Meyer, and N. Christensen, Bayesian parameter estimation of core collapse supernovae using gravitational wave simulations, Inverse Probl. 30, 114008 (2014).
  97. C. Pastor-Marcos, P. Cerdá-Durán, D. Walker, A. Torres-Forné, E. Abdikamalov, S. Richers, and J. A. Font, Bayesian inference from gravitational waves in fast-rotating, core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D 109, 063028 (2024).
  98. S. Nunes, G. Escrig, O. G. Freitas, J. A. Font, T. Fernandes, A. Onofre, and A. Torres-Forné, Deep-learning classification and parameter inference of rotational core-collapse supernovae, Phys. Rev. D 110, 064037 (2024).
  99. L. O. Villegas, C. Moreno, M. A. Pajkos, M. Zanolin, and J. M. Antelis, Parameter estimation from the core-bounce phase of rotating core collapse supernovae in real interferometer noise, Classical Quantum Gravity 42, 115001 (2025).
  100. G. Pagliaroli, F. Vissani, E. Coccia, and W. Fulgione, Neutrinos from supernovae as a trigger for gravitational wave search, Phys. Rev. Lett. 103, 031102 (2009).
  101. F. Halzen and G. G. Raffelt, Reconstructing the supernova bounce time with neutrinos in IceCube, Phys. Rev. D 80, 087301 (2009).
  102. S. Hild et al., Sensitivity studies for third-generation gravitational wave observatories, Classical Quantum Gravity 28, 094013 (2011).
  103. A. Abac and et al., The science of the Einstein telescope J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 03 (2026) 081.
  104. E. D. Hall, Cosmic explorer: A next-generation ground-based gravitational-wave observatory, Galaxies 10, 90 (2022).
  105. H. Dimmelmeier, J. A. Font, and E. Müller, Relativistic simulations of rotational core collapse I. Methods, initial models, and code tests, Astron. Astrophys. 388, 917 (2002).
  106. H. Dimmelmeier, J. Novak, J. A. Font, J. M. Ibáñez, and E. Müller, Combining spectral and shock-capturing methods: A new numerical approach for 3D relativistic core collapse simulations, Phys. Rev. D 71, 064023 (2005).
  107. M. Liebendörfer, A simple parameterization of the consequences of deleptonization for simulations of stellar core collapse, Astrophys. J. 633, 1042 (2005).
  108. S. E. Woosley and A. Heger, Nucleosynthesis and remnants in massive stars of solar metallicity, Phys. Rep. 442, 269 (2007).
  109. S. E. Woosley, A. Heger, and T. A. Weaver, The evolution and explosion of massive stars, Rev. Mod. Phys. 74, 1015 (2002).
  110. S. Banik, M. Hempel, and D. Bandyopadhyay, New hyperon equations of state for supernovae and neutron stars in density-dependent hadron field theory, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 214, 22 (2014).
  111. A. W. Steiner, M. Hempel, and T. Fischer, Core-collapse supernova equations of state based on neutron star observations, Astrophys. J. 774, 17 (2013).
  112. J. M. Lattimer and F. D. Swesty, A generalized equation of state for hot, dense matter, Nucl. Phys. A535, 331 (1991).
  113. M. Hempel and J. Schaffner-Bielich, A statistical model for a complete supernova equation of state, Nucl. Phys. A837, 210 (2010).
  114. M. Hempel, T. Fischer, J. Schaffner-Bielich, and M. Liebendörfer, New equations of state in simulations of core-collapse supernovae, Astrophys. J. 748, 70 (2012).
  115. G. Shen, C. J. Horowitz, and E. O’Connor, Second relativistic mean field and virial equation of state for astrophysical simulations, Phys. Rev. C 83, 065808 (2011).
  116. A. G. Abac and et al. (LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Collaborations), GWTC-4.0: An introduction to version 4.0 of the gravitational-wave transient catalog, Astrophys. J. Lett. 995, L18 (2025).
  117. A. Nitz et al., gwastro/pycbc: v2.3.3 release of pycbc (2024).
  118. J. W. Tukey, An Introduction to the Calculations of Numerical Spectrum Analysis, Spectra Analysis of Time Series (Wiley, New York, NY, 1967), p. 25.
  119. J. Alzubi, A. Nayyar, and A. Kumar, Machine learning from theory to algorithms: An overview, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1142, 012012 (2018).
  120. A. E. Hoerl and R. W. Kennard, Ridge regression: Applications to nonorthogonal problems, Technometrics 12, 69 (1970).
  121. R. Tibshirani, Regression shrinkage and selection via the lasso, J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B 58, 267 (1996).
  122. L. Breiman, Random forests, Mach. Learn. 45, 5 (2001).
  123. A. Smola and B. Scholkopf, A tutorial on support vector regression, Stat. Comput. 14, 199 (2004).
  124. L. Prokhorenkova, G. Gusev, A. Vorobev, A. V. Dorogush, and A. Gulin, Catboost: Unbiased boosting with categorical features, in Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, NIPS’18 (Curran Associates Inc., Red Hook, NY, USA, 2018), pp. 6639–6649.
  125. G. Ke, Q. Meng, T. Finley, T. Wang, W. Chen, W. Ma, Q. Ye, and T.-Y. Liu, Lightgbm: A highly efficient gradient boosting decision tree, in Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, NIPS’17 (Curran Associates Inc., Red Hook, NY, USA, 2017), pp. 3149–3157.
  126. T. Chen and C. Guestrin, Xgboost: A scalable tree boosting system, in Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD ’16 (Association for Computing Machinery, New York, USA, 2016), pp. 785–794.
  127. F. Pedregosa, G. Varoquaux, A. Gramfort, V. Michel, B. Thirion, O. Grisel, M. Blondel, P. Prettenhofer, R. Weiss, V. Dubourg et al., Scikit-learn: Machine learning in python, J. Mach. Learn. Res. 12, 2825 (2011), http://jmlr.org/papers/v12/pedregosa11a.html.
  128. Y. Shi, G. Ke, D. Soukhavong, J. Lamb, Q. Meng, T. Finley, T. Wang, W. Chen, W. Ma, Q. Ye, T.-Y. Liu, N. Titov, and D. Cortes, lightgbm: Light Gradient Boosting Machine (2026), r package version VERSION.
  129. T. Chen, T. He, M. Benesty, V. Khotilovich, Y. Tang, H. Cho, K. Chen, R. Mitchell, I. Cano, T. Zhou, M. Li, J. Xie, M. Lin, Y. Geng, Y. Li, J. Yuan, and D. Cortes, xgboost: Extreme Gradient Boosting (2026), r package version 3.3.0.0.
  130. P. Coulibaly and C. K. Baldwin, Nonstationary hydrological time series forecasting using nonlinear dynamic methods, J. Hydrol. 307, 164 (2005).
  131. F. J. Massey, The Kolmogorov-smirnov test for goodness of fit, J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 46, 68 (1951).
  132. B. Müller, Multi-dimensional relativistic simulations of core-collapse supernovae with energy-dependent neutrino transport, Ph.D. thesis, Technische Universität München, München, Germany, 2009.
  133. A. Sakan, N. Ussipov, E. Abdikamalov, A. Akhmetali, M. Zaidyn, A. Zhunuskanov, J. A. Font, M. C. Edwards, and S. Abylkairov, Probing supernovae through gravitational wave entropy, arXiv:2511.08010.
  134. S. E. Gossan, P. Sutton, A. Stuver, M. Zanolin, K. Gill, and C. D. Ott, Observing gravitational waves from core-collapse supernovae in the advanced detector era, Phys. Rev. D 93, 042002 (2016).
  135. M. J. Szczepańczyk et al., Detecting and reconstructing gravitational waves from the next galactic core-collapse supernova in the advanced detector era, Phys. Rev. D 104, 102002 (2021).
  136. gwosc.org.
  137. A. Akhmetali, S. Abylkairov, and E. Abdikamalov, Toward more realistic machine-learning inference of the dense-matter equation of state from supernova gravitational waves, 10.5281/zenodo.17579189 (2026).

Outline

Information

Phys. Rev. D 114, 043035– Published 14 August, 2026
  • Received 6 May 2026
  • Revised 17 June 2026
  • Accepted 22 June 2026
Crossmark - Check for updates button

© 2026 American Physical Society

Sign In to Your Journals Account

Filter

Filter

Article Lookup

Enter a citation