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Black hole thermodynamics at null infinity. I. Dual generalized second law

Antoine Rignon-Bret1,* and Matthieu Vilatte2,†

  • *Contact author: arignonbret@gmail.com
  • †Contact author: matthieu.vilatte@umons.ac.be
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Phys. Rev. D 114, 065012 – Published 10 September, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/gksv-yjqd

Abstract

The generalized second law (GSL) of black hole thermodynamics asserts the monotonic increase of the generalized entropy combining the black hole area and the entropy of quantum fields outside the horizon. Modern proofs of the GSL rely on information-theoretic methods and are typically formulated using algebras of observables defined on the event horizon together with a vacuum state invariant under horizon symmetries, inducing a geometric modular flow. In this work, we formulate a dual version of the generalized second law from the perspective of asymptotic observers at future null infinity, who do not have access to the black hole area. Our approach exploits the dependence of the second law on the choice of algebra of observables and of a reference state invariant under suitable symmetries, in close analogy with open quantum thermodynamics. Using algebraic quantum field theory and modular theory, we analyze several physically motivated vacuum states, including the Hartle-Hawking state and two classes of regularized vacua. We show that, at null infinity, the monotonic quantity governing an irreversible evolution is no longer the generalized entropy but rather a thermodynamic potential constructed from asymptotic observables. Depending on the chosen vacuum, this potential takes the form of the free energy or of a generalized grand potential built from the Bondi mass and additional (angular) mode-dependent chemical potentials. The resulting inequalities define a dual generalized second law at future null infinity, which can be consistently combined with the standard GSL involving variations of the black hole area.

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Black hole thermodynamics at null infinity. II. Open systems, Markovian dynamics, and work extraction from nonrotating black holes

Antoine Rignon-Bret and Matthieu Vilatte
Phys. Rev. D 114, 065011 (2026)

Article Text

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Phys. Rev. D 114, 065012– Published 10 September, 2026
  • Received 9 March 2026
  • Accepted 3 August 2026
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