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Advantage of flexible catalysis for entanglement and quantum thermodynamics
Phys. Rev. A 114, 022407 – Published 5 August, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/ty2x-k8rx
Abstract
Understanding the fundamental limits of state convertibility is crucial for establishing the boundaries of quantum information processing and thermodynamic efficiency. While auxiliary systems—catalysts—can facilitate otherwise impossible transformations, standard catalysis rigidly requires the auxiliary system to return to its exact initial state. In this work, we investigate the power of flexible catalysis, where the catalyst evolves through a cycle of states, restoring its initial configuration only after a finite number of steps. Focusing on the regime of fixed, finite dimensions, we analyze the capabilities of flexible catalysis within the resource theories of entanglement and quantum thermodynamics. In the context of entanglement, we derive conditions limiting flexible catalysts, yet show that flexible catalysis can be strictly more powerful than same-dimensional standard catalysis: it enables deterministic transformations achievable by no standard catalyst of the same dimension, and it strictly increases the success probability of stochastic local operations and classical communication. A similar deterministic advantage arises in quantum thermodynamics, where flexible catalysis enables state transformations that are impossible with any standard catalyst of fixed dimension and Hamiltonian but become achievable via flexible catalysis.
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